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INFORMATION 


ON 


COMMON OBJECTS. 








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INFORMATION 


ON 

OMMON OBJECTS 


FOR THE USE OF 


INFANT AND JUVENILE SCHOOLS, 


AM) 


NURSERY GOVERNESSES. 



LONDON: 

o 

tSHEO FOB THE HOME AND COLONIAL INFANT SCHOOL SOCIETT, BY 

DARTON AND CLARK, 

HOLBORN HILL. 


1845 

< 1 . 





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PREFACE. 


The following work has been prepared at the request 
and under the superintendence of the Committee of the 
Home and Colonial Infant School Society. 

The end proposed was the communication of such 
knowledge as would he desirable for a teacher to 
possess before giving a lesson on any common object, 
and only such facts have been stated as it is requisite 
they should know\ It may not be out of place to 
guard teachers against the supposition that they are to 
bring before the children all the knowledge here com¬ 
municated ; the aim is rather to put them in possession 
of that confidence which is essential to the giving a 
really good lesson—the confidence that they are ac¬ 
quainted with their subject, and are prepared to satisfy 
the desire for information which an examination of any 


IV 


PREFACE. 


of the objects may awaken in the minds of th 
pupils. 

The objects described are contained in a box arrang 
for the use of schools according to instructions giv 
by the Committee of the Society. 

Although the classification of the descriptions is ii 
perfect, it is perhaps the least objectionable that con 
he made. 

The articles are described as briefly as is consists 
with clearness, so that the size and price of the wo 
might he as small as possible. 

A list of some of the works consulted by the Co 

piler is annexed :— 

Ure’s Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures. 

Lardner’s Cyclopaedia—Manufactures in Metals. 

Penny Cyclopaedia. 

Encyclopaedia Britannica. 

Partington’s Cyclopaedia. 

Burnett’s Outlines of Botany. 

Burnett’s Useful Plants. 

Bindley’s Flora Medica. 

I 

Smith’s English Botany. 

Loudon’s Arboretum Britannicum. i 

Loudon’s Encyclopaedia of Agriculture. , 

'I 

Thompson’s Dispensatory. , 


PREFACE. 


V 


Pereira’s Materia Medica. 

Library of Entertaining Knowledge—Vegetable Sub¬ 
stances. 

Transactions of the Society of Arts. 

Turner’s Chemistry. 

Graham’s Chemistry. 

Knight’s Weekly Volume—Textile Manufactures ; 
and British Manufactures. 

• Taylor’s Handbook of Silk and Cotton Manufacture. 
Owen’s Lectures on the Invertebrate Animals. 
Fleming’s Molluscous Animals. 


5 



Vill 


CONTENTS. 


OBJECTS DERIVED FROM THE VEGETABLE 

KINGDOM. 


CORN. 

PAGE 

SPICES. 

PAGE 

Introduction 

. 39 

Allspice 

. 46 

Wheat . 

41 

Cinnamon . 

47 

Barley 

. 42 

Cloves 

. 47 

Oats 

43 

Ginger 

48 

Rice 

. 44 

Nutmegs and Mace 

. 48 


WOODS. 


Introduction 

. 50 

Oak . . . 

52 

Cedar-wood 

51 

Pine, or Fir-wood 

. 53 

Mahogany 

. 51 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


Acorn 

. 55 

Nutgalls 

. 71 

Beans 

56 

Oak Bark . 

71 

Beer 

. 57 

Olive Oil 

. 72 

Bran 

57 

Papers, Various . 

73 u 

Camomile Flowers . 

. 58 

Pearlash . 

. 76 

Camphor 

58 

Peas .... 

76 

Cane 

. 59 

Raisins 

. 77 

Chaff 

60 

Saffron 

78 

Coffee 

. 60 

Sago 

. 79 

Cork 

61 

Sawdust 

79 

Currants 

. 62 

Sealingwax 

. 80 \ 

Figs .... 

63 

Sea Weed . 

80 

Fir Cones 

. 64 

Soda 

. 81 

Gum 

64 

Sugar 

82 

Hazel Nuts 

. 65 

Tea 

. 84 

Hops 

65 

Vinegar 

85 

Indian Rubber 

. 66 

Wafers 

. 86 ' 

Ink .... 

68 

Walnuts 

87 

Moss i 

Mustard seeds 

. 68 
69 

Willow 

. 87 
















CONTENTS. 


IX. 


OBJECTS DERIVED FROM THE ANIMAL 

KINGDOM. 


Introduction 
Snail shell 
Periwinkle 
Whelk 


SHELLS. 


PAGE 


I’AG K 

89 

Limpet . 

. 93 

90 

Mussel 

94 

91 

Oyster 

. 94 

92 

Mother of Pearl . 

95 


INSECTS. 


Introduction 

. 96 

Silkworm Moth 

. 103 

Bees 

97 

Butterfly , 

105 

Bees’ Wax 

. 100 

Cockchafler 

. 106 

Black Beetle 

. 102 

Grasshopper 

. 107 


MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. 


Bones 

. 109 

Horse Hair 

. 120 

Bristles 

no 

Ivory 

120 

Coral 

. Ill 

Leather . 

. 121 

Foot of Duck 

112 

Mflk . 

123 

Feathers 

. 113 

Parchment . 

125 

Down . 

115 

Soap 

. 125 

Fur 

. 116 

Sponge 

126 

Glue 

117 

Tortoiseshell 

. • .127 

Hen’s Foot 

Horn . . . 

. 118 
119 

Whalebone . 

129 







X 


CONTENTS. 


TEXTILE OR WOVEN FABRICS, AND THEIR 

MATERIALS. 



PAGE. 

Spinning . 

. 131 

Weaving 

. . 132 

Raw Cotton 

. . 134 

Flax . fc 

135 


PAGE. 

Hemp .... 137 

Silk ... 139 

I Wool . . ,140 




OBJECTS 


DERIVED FROM 

* 

THE MINERAL KINGDOM. 


THE METALS. 


Introduction. —The metals form a class of bodies be¬ 
longing to the mineral kingdom. They are distinguished from 
minerals in general, not by any one character in particular, 
but by several taken together. 

They all possess a peculiar brightness, very different, for 
instance, from that of glass or wnx, or varnish;* but we must 
not therefore imagine that all bodies that possess this pecu¬ 
liar brightness or lustre are metals, for many other minerals 
have it. 

If a sheet of polished metal be held before the fire or a can¬ 
dle, the heat from the fire or the light from the candle, instead 
of passing through the metal, as they would partly through a 
sheet of glass, or sinking into it, as they would into a rough 
black board, are thrown back again, or rejiected: if, instead of 
holding the metal straight before the fire, we hold it at an 
angle or slantingly, the heat, instead of being thrown back, 
will be throwTi in another direction; this will be easily proved 
if we stand by the side of the fire-place, so that w e cannot see 
the fire, and get another person to hold the sheet of metal, 
moving it until w^e see the light of the fire on it, when we shall 
feel the heat also. 

This simple experiment, w'hich may be performed with any 


* We are apt to consider lead, and some other metals, as not possessed 
of this brightness, from the circumstance of their tarni.shing on the .surface, 
•when e.Kposed to the action of the air; if, however, the tarnish is removed 
by scraping or polishing in any way, their brightness is immediately 
restored. 

B 





2 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


sheet o{polished metal, as a bright shovel or the under surface 
of a large saucepan lid, proves that the light and the heat of 
a fire, on striking or falling on a polished metallic surface, are 
thrown oft’from it, or, in other words, reflected; and therefore 
metals are said to be (/ood reflectors of heat and light. ]\Iany 
of the most important uses of metals depend on this property; 
for instance—metals are used to make the reflectors placed in 
carriage lamps, which throw the light in the direction re¬ 
quired. Light-houses on the sea-shore are usually provided 
with metallic reflectors, so placed as to throw out to sea the light 
that would otherwise pass inland. In our kitchens, screens 
of bright tinned plate are })laced before meat that is being 
roasted, in order that the heat from the fire may be reflected 
by them back upon the meat instead of passing into the room. 

'When metals are required to reflect heat or light in any 
direction, they should be brightly polished, as it is only when 
in this state that they reflect well. 

If we make a bar or rod of metal, as for instance the poker, 
red hot at one part, we shall find that we are not able to hold 
it in the hand nearer to the red hot ])art than one foot and a 
half or two feet; if we make a stick of wood or charcoal red 
hot, we can hold it readily within an inch of the heated part 
without being burnt. This remarkable difference arises from 
the metal conveying the heat to the hand with great quickness 
and facility, whilst the wood and charcoal do not possess this 
power of conducting heat. 

Metals are, in fact, distinguished among solid bodies by the 
ease and rapidity with which heat passes along them, and from 
this circumstance they are said to be good conductors of heat; 
whereas wood and chai’coal are bad conductors of heat. It is 
from possessing this property that metals feel cold to the 
touch, because they carry away the heat of the skin very ra¬ 
pidly, and not (as is often wrongly su])posed) because they are 
really colder than other bodies : a spoon or any other metallic 
substance that has been lying some time on a table, must 
necessarily be of the same heat as the table, both having been 
exposed to the same air and warmth; if, however, the hot 
hand is placed on the spoon, the latter feels cold, because it 
carries away the heat from the hand very fast; on the contrar\% 
the table does not feel cold, because it does not possess the 
power of conducting the heat so rapidlv. 

Not only do metals possess the power of conducting heat. 


METALS. 


3 


they also are distingiiished as conductors of another principle 
called Electricity, or, when it occurs on a large scale in nature. 
Lightning. It was from a knowledge of this fact that light¬ 
ning conductors for protecting buildings and shi})s were first 
devised. A lightning conductor consists of a rod of metal, 
higher than the building or mast to which it is attached, and 
carried some depth into the earth or the sea; the use of this 
rod is, as its name implies, to conduct the electric fluid: being 
higher than the building to which it is affixed it attracts the 
lightning, and conveys it into the ground or into the sea. The 
metal allows the electricity to pass freely along it, and hence 
it is not injured by it; the brick and stone work of a house do 
not allow a free passage for the lightning, and consequently, 
if struck by it are, destroyed. 

Of all metals copper is by far the best conductor of electri¬ 
city, and should therefore always be used for this pur])ose. 

Some few of the metals are brittle, so much so, that if struck 
with a hammer they break into small pieces ; this is the case 
with antimony and bismuth. The greater number, however, 
on being beaten with hammers spread out into thin leaves;— 
this property is called malleability, and those metals capable 
of being beaten out into the thinnest leaves or sheets are said 
to be the most malleable. 

Of all the metals, gold possesses this property in the 
highest degree; it can be beaten until the leaves are only the 
282,000th of an inch in thickness. 

Malleable is derived from the Latin word malleus, a hammer, 
from whence comes our English word mallet. 

Another property possessed by several of the metals is ca¬ 
pability of being drawm out into thin wires; this property is 
called ductility. Of all metals, gold is the most ductile, or, 
in other words, it can be thawn out into thinner wires than 
any other metal. The mode adopted for drawing out metals 
into wires is, first, to form the metal into a bar or cylinder: 
this bar is drawn by machinery through a hole smaller than 
itself, and is, of course, lessened in size and increased in length 
by the operation; it is then drawn through a still smaller hole; 
again through one still less, and so on until the wire is of the 
size required. 

The strength of wires does not, as would be supposed, 
corresjx)nd with the ductility of the metals of which they are 

B 2 


4 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


formed; by far the most tenacious metal is iron, although 
in ductility it is surpassed by gold, silver, and platina. 

The strength or tenacity of metals is easily ascertained, by 
taking the same sized wires of the various metals, and trying 
what weight they will bear without breaking. 

We are ai)t to think that all the metals must be very heavy 
bodies; the greater number of them are so, but not all; there 
are some (though these are not common) that, being lighter 
than water, float on its surface. Others, again, as gold and 
platina, are the heaviest bodies in nature; the latter is more 
than 21 times heavier than water, and gold more than 1.9 times, 
iron, tin, and zinc are between seven and eight times the 
weight of water. 

All the metals are capable of being melted by heat, that is, 
they are all fusible: they vaiy, however, very greatly in their 
degree of fusibilitv; the heat that always naturally exists in 
this country is sufficient to melt one of them, mercury. Near 
the north pole, however, the temperature is not sufficiently 
great to melt this metal, and it is, of course, there in a solid 
state. Some metals fuse below a red heat, as lead, tin, and 
zinc. The other common metals do not melt until they 
are heated above a red heat. It is a singidar fact, that when 
two metals are mixed together, the resulting compound, which 
is called an alloy, melts at a much less heat than either of the 
two metals of which it is formed would have done separately. 
For this reason solder, which is an alloy formed of lead and 
tin, is used by plumbers for uniting pipes together, as it melts 
at a less heat than lead, and is consequently more manageable. 

Not only are all the metals fusible, but some are even 
volatile, that is, on being heated they fly off in the form of 
vapour. The common metals that possess this property are 
mercury and zinc. 

The metals vary much in hardness; some of the uncommon 
ones are as soft as wax, and can be moulded by the hand. 
liCad can be scratched by the nail; copper, gold, and silver 
are harder; zinc and iron still more so. 

The metals are supposed to be simple substances, that is, 
they are not compounds or mixtures of several bodies. We 
know glass to be a compound body, because we can make 
it by mixing several things together and melting them. Or 
we can separate the various things of which it is made; but 


METALS. 


5 


we suppose iron and all the other metals to be simple sub¬ 
stances, because we cannot make them, nor can we sepa¬ 
rate any thing from them. Metals are usually found not 
pure, but mixed with various substances, and in this state 
they usually look like stones, and are called ores. Thus, the 
minerals from which iron is obtained are called iron ores. 
Lead is procured from lead ore, &c. &c. 

Lead. —Lead is a metal found principally, in England, in 
the Mendip Hills of Somerset, and in the Peak of Derby¬ 
shire, not in its metallic state, but as an ore, containing a 
large quantity of sulphur. This ore is called galena, or lead 
glance. The metal is obtained from the galena by first heat¬ 
ing it strongly, or roasting it, as it is termed, in order to burn 
away the sulphur. The whole is then melted, when the lead, 
being heaviest, sinks to the bottom, leaving the impurities on 
the surface. It is then allowed to run into moulds, each of 
which holds about 150 lbs. The masses of lead thus obtained 
are termed pigs, or pig-lead. It is a blueish gray colour, 
very brilliant when first melted or scraped, but the surface 
rapidly tarnishes when exposed to the air or to water. The use 
of lead, as a material for making water-pij)es, and for lining 
cisterns, depends partly on the forming of this rust or tarnish, 
for the metal itself is })oisonous j but it does not render the 
water unwholesome, as the tarnish on the surface prevents any 
further action of the water on the metal. It is the softest of 
the common metals, being readily cut with a knife, or even 
scratched by the finger nail. When rubbed on jiaper a i)or- 
tion is left, causing a blueish gray stain. It is readily melted, 
fusins: before it is heated to redness, and it is one of the most 
inelastic metals, remaining in any position m which it is bent. 
It is this very softness, and the ease with which it is melted, 
that render lead so valuable to man. It requires little labour 
to work it; it is easily cast into any shape, consequently it is 
much used. Sheet-lead is made either by casting the melted 
metal in sand, or by rolling it into sheets, w hen solid, between 
large rollers. It is in great use for covering the gutters or 
roofs of houses and other buildings ; for lining cisterns, cof¬ 
fins, making water-pijies, &c., the ease with which the metal 
is cut, and the flexibility it possesses, enabling the w orkers to 
bend and adapt it to any object it is desired to cover. 


6 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


The Chinese have taken advantage of the ready fusibility 
of lead to form the thin lead with which they line their tea- 
chests. A quantity of the melted metal is j)oured on a flat 
stone, and before it cools another is laid on it, which })resses 
the lead into a thin sheet. Bullets used by soldiers are made 
by casting the melted metal in moulds, whilst the lead shot 
employed by sportsmen are made by melting the lead with a 
small quantity of another metal, called arsenic, to render it 
harder. When melted, this mixture, or alloy, is poured into 
an iron or copper frame pierced with holes like a cullender, 
through which it streams in a shower, dividing into drops, 
w^hich fall into cold water ; and, in order that the lead may 
be somewhat cooled before it reaches the water, it is allowed 
to fall from a great height, the shot factories being built for 
this reason about 100 feet hio;h. Alloved with one-sixteenth 
part of the metal called antimony, the use of which is to 
liarden it considerably, lead forms the substance of which the 
types or letters used in printing books are cast. Melted with 
tin it forms the substance used by plumbers for uniting 
together pieces of metal, and which is called solder. When 
two metals are melted together, the compound formed is much 
more easily fused than either of the metals separately would 
be; therefore the hot iron of the plumber will melt the 
solder whilst there is no risk of his melting the lead or other 
metal he has to join. In weight lead exceeds most of the 
common metals; it is eleven-and-a-half times heavier than 
water : being so very heavy, it is often employed for clock- 
weights, &c. 

Its ductility and tenacity are excedingly small; it cannot 
be drawn into wires less than one-twelfth of an inch in dia¬ 
meter, and they will not support more than 20 lbs. To bear 
one cwt. a ware of lead would be required two inches and a 
half in diameter. Lead, however, can be beaten out into 
very thin leaves; but they possess but little strength. Use is 
made of the capability of lead to be drawm out in making 
pipes. A thick rod of lead is cast w'ith a hole dowai the 
middle, the size of the bore of the pipe required; in this hole 
an iron rod is placed to keep it from closing, and the lead is 
then lessened in size and increased in length by being drawn 
by a machine through grooves in rollers gradually decreasing 
in size. When the pipe is sufficiently small, the iron wire is 
withdrawn. 


METALS. 


7 


When kept melted for any length of time, lead rapidly forms 
a dross on the surface: this substance is litharge, which is 
much used in glazing earthenware, and in makiug flint-glass, 
to which it gives great transparency and clearness, and lessens 
its liability to crack. 

Red-lead is another preparation of this metal, it is also 
used by glass-makers, and by painters as a colour. White- 
lead is prepared by corroding lead with the vapour of vinegar. 
It is used in very large quantity to form paint. All these 
preparations of lead are extremely poisonous, giving to per¬ 
sons who use them paralytic diseases, and a dreadful com¬ 
plaint called painters’ cholic. Besides painters, those who w ork 
with the metal, and are called plumbers, from the Latin name 
of lead (plumbum), are liable to these disorders. 

Black-lead is a mineral substance that does not contain 
any portion of lead. 

Copper. —The most important and valuable ore of copper 
is that termed copper pyrites, in which the metal is united to 
sulphur and iron. It is found in very large quantity in Corn¬ 
wall, Devonshire, and Anglesea. 

The copper is obtained from this ore by a very complicated 
process, during which the ore is heated to redness (or roasted) 
many times, in order to drive off the sulphur, and the earthy 
impurities are separated by their being melted away. As 
thus obtained, copper is of a reddish colour; it has a nauseous 
taste, and, w'hen rubbed, a disagreeable smell. It is one of 
the most malleable of the metals, capable of being beaten 
or rolled into very thin leaves, and it is possessed of very con¬ 
siderable hardness. It is on its malleability that its great 
use depends. When heated it is rolled into sheets between 
cast-iron rollers, which are, after each rolling, placed nearer 
together so as to lessen the thickness of the sheet. These 
sheets are used for protecting the parts ,of a vessel that are 
under water, for w hich purpose the copper is wtU fitted by its 
hardness. Sheets of copper are also used for making copper 
money. Round pieces of the size of the coin required are 
cut or punched out of the sheet, and then by a pow'erful 
engine are stamped with the design. Sheet co])per is much 
used by the engraver; it is not so exceedingly hard but that 
his steel tools w ill act upon it, and yet is sufficiently so for 


8 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


a large number of prints to be taken from it without in¬ 
jury to the design. 

Copper is remarkable for its great ductility and tenacity: 
it can be drawn out into wire smaller than those of any othei 
common metal, exce})t gold, silver, or iron; and in strength 
cop})er wire is superior to all, except that of iron. The use 
of copper wire for bells is well known, and no metal could 
well supply its place, iron is stronger, but then it rusts, 
which copper does not if not wetted. Copper is of all metals 
the most sounding or sonorous when struck. This property, 
perhaps, depends partly on its elasticity, which is very con¬ 
siderable. In consequence of this property, copper, wdien 
properly prepared, or some mixture of it with other metals, 
is always selected to form musical instruments. Among the 
other uses to which copper is applied is that of making uten¬ 
sils for cooking; but it should never be so em})loyed, being 
one of the most poisonous of the metals, and readily acted 
on, and in part dissolved, by any substances containing acids, 
as vinegar or fruit, when the portion dissolved renders 
the whole poisonous. Many lives have been lost by per¬ 
sons eating food that has been left standing in copper 
vessels. 

At a bright red heat copper melts, and then may be readily 
alloyed with other metals. Some of the compounds thus 
formed are more valuable than even co})})er itself. When 80 
parts of cop])er are mixed wdth 20 parts of a metal called 
zinc, and melted together, brass is formed, an alloy of extreme 
value. The colour varies wdth the proportions of coj)j)er it 
contains; its value de})ends on its being cheaper and more 
easily melted than co})])er, and though not so hard, yet as it 
does not rust w hen exposed to the air, it is used for the making 
of engines, clocks, and wheels of Watches. So readilv and 
chea])ly is it worked in consequence of its softness, fusibility, 
and ductility, that it is employed to a great extent for do¬ 
mestic purposes, as for pins, candlesticks, &c. 

Bronze is an alloy of copper w'ith a small quantity of tin; 
it is extremely hard, and w as used by the ancient Romans to 
form cutting instruments and w'eapons, as iron w as not known 
to them. In the Scripture we find constant references to its 
use: it is there, however, termed brass, and the articles 
made of it are called brazen. 


METALS. 


9 


The compound of which hells are made is formed of 
co])per alloyed with tin and other metals. 

The German silver now used contains copper, which is 
iissolved if the spoons, &c. made of it are left in vinegar or 
pickles, rendering the whole unwholesome. 

Silver. —Silver is a valuable or precious metal that is 
'ound in very considerable quantity in the central countries of 
4.merica, viz. Chili and Peru. In the mines, which usually 
ire in the mountainous districts, the silver oecurs native or 
n the metallic state; and being nearly pure, it is readily 
separated from the substances it is united with by roasting it, 
;o drive off any small quantities of sulphur present, and then 
mixing the whole in mercury, which dissolves the silver 
md leaves the impurities. The mercury is then evaporated by 
leat, and is collected to be used again, whilst the silver, not 
Deing volatile, remains in the vessel. The fumes of the 
mercury, when thus heated, are very destructive to the lives 
Df the workmen employed. In almost all the lead ores of 
:his country there is a small proportion of silver, and in many 
:he quantity is sufficient to repay the cost of extracting it. 

In appearance, silver is one of the most beautiful of the 
metals, it being more brilliantly white than any other; and 
t is capable of being more highly polished than any, except 
steel. It is quite destitute of any taste or smell, and is not 
in the slightest degree changed or acted upon by water, 
moisture, or pure air. It is these circumstances that render 
silver so highly prized as a material for making utensils for 
domestic use. Its beautiful appearance and high polish re¬ 
commend it to the eye; and as it is not acted upon, like cop¬ 
per, by our food, or by any acid, such as vinegar, it does not 
render our victuals impure or poisonous; and as it is without 
taste or smell, it cannot communicate either. 

The value of silver, and its occurring in the earth in a me¬ 
tallic form, not requiring any great skill to extract it, are the 
causes that it was one of the metals first used by man; and 
we have records of its being appreciated in the earliest times. 

Silver can be beaten or rolled out into thinner leaves than 
any other metal, with the exception of gold, and its use to 
man depends, in a very great degree, upon this property. 
Before being made into such articles as cups, candlesticks, &c. 


10 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


silver is rolled into thin sheets, which are cut the required 
shape, and soldered together at the edges. Sheets of silver, 
cut into circular pieces, and stamped with a device, are used 
in almost all civilised countries as coins or money ; and, from 
the high })rice of silver, these are used for greater amounts 
than coins of copper. Silver, however, when quite pure, is 
too soft for the ])urpose of making money, therefore it is 
usually alloyed with about one-twelfth of coj)per. 

The value of silver prevents its being much employed by 
any but rich persons; but by a process termed plating, 
articles are formed that possess all the advantages of silver, 
and are not more than one-sixth of its cost. Plating is the 
covering of another metal with a surface of silver. If a sheet 
of coj)per is required with a face of silver, it is formed in this 
manner : A thick, stout bar of copper is taken, and on it is 
laid a thin sheet of silver. They are bound together by wire, 
and heated so as to make them unite. The bar thus formed 
is rolled into a large sheet, which still has a thin covering of 
silver, and may be used in the same manner as a sheet of 
silver. Articles that, from the sha})e, cannot be covered with 
silver in this manner, are rubbed over with some silver dis¬ 
solved in mercury ; the latter is then driven off by heat, and 
the silver remains covering the article. 

Silver is one of the most ductile and tenacious metals : it 
is therefore much used in the form of wire, and from its 
strength, as well as its unchanging beauty and value, is 
formed into chains for watch-guards, &c. These, again, are 
frequently covered with gold, or gilt, as it is termed. 

Besides the above uses, silver supplies a most valuable 
caustic for the use of surgeons; and the same preparation of 
it is made into marking-ink. 

N.B. Plating of articles, as spoons, forks, ornaments, &c. 
of an irregular shape, is now done by the aid of galvanism, a 
kind of electricity. 

Mercury, or Quicksilver. —Mercury is found united 
with sulphur in many parts of the earth, but the largest mines 
of it are in Sjiain and Peru. One mine alone in Spain em¬ 
ploys about 1000 persons in working it. The mercury is 
obtained from the sulphur with which it is united, by placing 
the ore in close ii'on or earthen vessels along with iron or 


METALS. 


11 


me. The vessels are then heated to redness, and the sulphur 
nites with the lime or iron, whilst the mercury is set free, 
ad, being volatile, passes otf in vapours which are cooled, 
hen they condense into the tluid metal. IMercury is a metal 
f a very brilliant lustre and a white colour, resembling 
Iver. It is the only metal that is melted by the warmth 
f our climate. Near the poles, and even in some ])arts of 
iberia, in winter it is solid, but when brought to warmer 
bmates it melts; in this country it is always tluid. A small 
jro}) of mercury, placed on a tlat surface, retains a round 
)rm, for it does not adhere or stick to those objects with 
diich it is })laced in contact—hence it readily rolls about if 
be surface on which it be is at all inclined, and this ])ower of 
oiling readily over sloping surfaces, and its colour, have 
lained for it the name of quicksilver. It is very easily 
jvided—a drop allowed to fall on the table separates into 
n immense number of little globules, each of which retains 
:s round form, and runs about readily if the surface of the 
able be not quite level. Mercury is quite free from any taste 
r smell, and in the state of a metal is not poisonous. The 
se of mercury in the arts depends partly on its being a vola- 
ile substance, and on the readiness with which it combines 
i'ith other metals forming compounds termed amalgams, 
iilver is extracted from its ore by being placed in contact 
dth mercurv, with which it unites and becomes dissolved; 
he compound is then heated strongly, and the mercury is 
[riven off in vapour and is collected for future use, whilst the 
ilver remains behind. It is used in the same manner in sil- 
ering or plating small objects. (See Silver.) It unites 
eadily with the common metals, tin and lead; advantage is 
aken of this circumstance in forming looking-glasses, which 
re backed with a compound of tin and mercury. A small piece 
if glass may be easily made into a looking-glass, by taking a 
liece of tinfoil (which is merely tin beat out into thin leaves); 
m this, which must be very smooth, some mercury is to be 
pread quite evenly, and both covered by a jiiece of very 
mooth pa])er; the glass is then to be laid upon the pajier, 
.nd pressed down, whilst the latter is pulled steadily away, 
rhen the glass and the mercury will come into contact, and if 
he operation has been skilfully conducted there will be no air 
lubbles, as they ai*e drawn out by the pai)er; if a weight is 



12 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


then put on the glass, so as to press out the excess of mer¬ 
cury, a very tolerable mirror is tlie result. Large glasses are 
made on exactly the same principle./The weight of mercury 
is very great—it is thirteen times heavier than water; this 
circumstance, together witli its being unchanged by the air. 
and its fluid state, render it of great use in making philo¬ 
sophical instruments. 

It is also used in medicine when combined with other sub¬ 
stances. One very useful preparation of mercury is calomel, 
and it also yields corrosive sublimate, a medicine of very 
j)oisonous properties, which is much used for preventing, the 
dry rot in wood and cordage. 

Pewter. —Pewter is an alloy formed of different metals 
according to the use to which it is to be apj)lied. The 
common pewter dishes and measures for beer are made of tin, 
with one-twentieth of its weight of copper melted together. 
The uses of pewter depend upon a quality common to aU 
mixtures of metals, that they melt more easily than simple 
metals; pewter melts readily, and is without trouble cast into 
any required shape. When cold it is inelastic, and will bend 
to some considerable extent without cracking; thus it is ad¬ 
vantageously employed for measures which are ex})osed to 
great violence, as, if it is knocked out of shape, it can be 
restored by beating. Compared with copper and other metals 
that might be employed, it is cheap, and it answers where cast 
iron would not, being too heavy and liable to crack; it 
is also sufficiently soft to allow any name or address to be 
engraved on without much trouble, and therefore chea])ly. 

Britannia metal may be regarded as a superior kind of pew¬ 
ter, and, like the latter, its use depends on its cheapness and on 
the ease with which it is melted, and on its softness, enabling 
it to be turned in a lathe, and cut of any required shape. 

Iron. —Iron is, of all metals, the most useful and really 
valuable to man—and, by the kind care of the Creator, it is 
one of the most abundant. It is found in every country in 
soils, in rocks, and in quarries, combined with other substances 
in the form of various ores, but it is very rarely met with in 
a metallic state. The most useful of all the ores of iron is 
that which is termed clay u'on ore, because the iron is united 





METALS. 


13 


with a large quantity of clay. It is from this ore that tlie 
iron used in this country is obtained; the first })rocess is to 
roast or heat the ore for some time, so as to drive away any 
small portions of sulphur which it may contain; it is then 
jmixed with coke and lime, and the whole thrown into im- 
imense furnaces, lighted, and ke])t at an intense heat by blasts 
lof hot air, forced in by steam-engines; the use of the coke is 
to supply the heat as it burns, while the lime unites with the 
clay and earthy matters of the ore; and forms an easily melted 
jmass, which is allowed to escape. The melted iron, being 
the heaviest substance in the furnace, sinks to the bottom, 
and every twelve hours is allowed to fiow out into channels 
made in sand. The shape of these channels into which the 
imelted iron runs and cools, has caused the workmen to 
call the iron ])ig-iron, and it is always known by this name in 
commerce. Thus obtained, iron is usually very hard and 
brittle, and is melted nithout much difficulty and cast into 
various articles ; hence it is frequently termed cast-iron. 

In order to form iron fit for the blacksmith’s use, or 
forged iron, as it is termed, the cast iron is melted by an 
intense heat, and exjiosed to the air for about two hours; it is 
then cooled suddenly, and again heated in another furnace 
until it melts; after a short time it begins to thicken, when 
it is taken out and beaten by heavy hammers, and rolled 
under immense pressure whilst still hot—by these operations 
its nature is much changed—it is no longer brittle, but ex¬ 
cessively tough and strong — infusible, and, to a certain 
degree malleable. 

Forged or malleable iron, as thus produced, is usually of 
a grayish white colour, with a slight shade of blue. It is 
ductile to a very great degree, for it can be drawn into wire 
less than a quarter of the size of human hair. It also possesses 
a very considerable power of malleability, for it can be rolled 
or hammered into sheets, although not into such excessively 
thin leaves as gold, silver, or copper can; but the quality that 
renders iron of such extreme use to man is its immense strength 
and toughness, or tenacity—in which quality it exceeds that 
of all other metals: if a chain or wire be required of great 
strength, iron is taken to form it; if a tank or vessel to bold 
large quantities of water is made, it is of iron, because it is 
the strongest as w'ell as the cheapest material that could be 

c 




14 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


em])lo 3 'ed. Forged iron, although it can scarcely he melted 
bv the most extreme heat, is readily worked into any shape—- 
for when heated to bright redness, or to whiteness, it becomes 
snfficiently soft to be moulded by the heavy blows of a hammer, 
or to be cut or punched with holes by the tools of the blacksmith. 
Iron possesses an invaluable jn’operty that is not found in any 
other common metal; it is that of welding : when two pieces 
of iron are heated to whiteness and hammered together, they 
unite firmly, and are as strong at the 2 )lace where they are 
joined as elsewhere. Without this property iron chains could 
not be made without soldering, and then the strength would 
be so much lessened that they would not be fit for the uses to 
which they are now a})plied, as for cables, harness for waggon 
horses, &c. One would be apt to imagine that so strong a 
metal would necessarily be ver\^ heavy; but as, if it had been 
of very great weight, iron would not have been so useful to 
man, it has been benevolentlv ordered bva kind and thought- 
fill Providence that it should be very light comjiared with the 
other metals: it is much lighter than silver, cojiper, or lead. 

Not only is iron valuable to us as a tough and somewhat 
malleable metal, but we possess the ])ower of rendering it 
very hard, and of removing this ductility: this is done by 
cooling iron suddenly, by plunging it into water. The 
blacksmith, after making a hoe or a ploughshare, renders 
it still more valuable by hardening it as much as jiossible, as, 
after it is once formed, it is not required to be malleable; ,| 
he does this by plimgfeg it whilst hot into water; and if at any 
time it should require altering in shajie, it has only to be 
heated in the forge, and it again becomes malleable. 

Besides all these projierties rendering it so valuable to man, 
iron possesses another not less important than any of those 
before mentioned. If bars of the best iron are taken and sur¬ 
rounded ivith powdered charcoal, and then heated to white¬ 
ness for some days, it is much changed in its ajipearance—it 
has become excessively hard, and much more elastic than 
before, and is called Steel. It is of this material that pen¬ 
knives, scissors, razors, table-knives, and all cutting instru¬ 
ments are formed; the steel sjirings of bells and watcli-sjiriiigs 
are also made of this substance. It mav strike us with sur¬ 
prise that so brittle a body as a pen-knife, and so elastic a 
one as a watch-si)ring, can be formed of the same material; 


METALS. 


15 


but steel can be altered in the same manner as iron is: by being 
suddenly cooled it becomes very bard and brittle, but if it 
is cooled very slowly it is elastic and not so hard: by attention 
and experience the workman is enabled to give the exact 
degree of hardness reipiired to all steel instruments. Both 
iron and steel are capable of being highly polished, and when 
exposed to dry air they undergo no change, but if there is 
much damp they become rusty. The rust of iron, however, 
unlike the rust of copper, is not unwholesome, but, on the 
contrary, it is, as well as many other preparations of the metal, 
used as a strenKthenin" medicine. 

Iron is also used in dying black and in making ink. (See 
Ink and Nutgalls.) 

The needle of the mariner’s compass, wdiich abvays ])oints 
to the poles, and so enables him to steer his ship across the 
pathless ocean, is formed of iron or steel rendered magnetic, 
either by rubbing with a loadstone, or other means; not any 
of our common metals could be used for the same purpose. 




16 


MINERALS. 


Chalk. —Chalk is a mineral substance consisting of lime, the 
acrid and caustic properties of which sire destroyed by its being 
united to an acid gas. This acid gas is given off if the chalk 
is })laced in a stronger acid, such as vinegar. 

When chalk is heated to redness, this gas is driven off by 
the heat, and caustic lime remains. It is in this way that 
lime is formed, by burning the commoner kinds of chalk or 
limestone in kilns. 

Chalk is one of the most common minerals. It forms 
several ranges of hills in the south of England, which are dis¬ 
tinguished by their rounded summits 

Limestone is an impure kind of chalk. IMarble is of the 
same nature as chalk, only of a harder texture. 

As chalk lies near the surface, it is not obtained by mining, 
but by simply digging pits or quarries. 

Chalk is an article of very extensive use; it is of great 
value to the farmer, from its improving the quality of clayey 
lands. Its white colour and friable texture render it use¬ 
ful for drawing, or writing on slates, wood, &c. 

When chalk is finely powdered and mixed with water, the 
latter becomes turbid or milky, from the finer particles being 
suspended or held up in the water, while the coarser,sink to 
the bottom. If the water is poured off, it carries all the finest 
powder with it. On being allowed to stand undisturbed for 
some time, this settles at the bottom; it is collected and sold 
under the name of whiting, for cleaning metals, &c.; and 
when mixed with glue and water, it forms whitewash. 

Chalk is used occasionally as a medicine, to correct acidity 
in the stomach; for the same purpose it is placed in calf-pens 
for the animals to lick. 

Clay. —Clay is an earthy substance, which is readily dis¬ 
tinguished by its forming a soft, inelastic, ductile mass 
when moistened. It is opaque, and usually possesses a very 



MINERALS. 


17 


I peculiar odour (clayey). Clay, when pure, is white, as we 
I find pipe clay and porcelain clay; but in general it is deeply 
I coloured by the mixture of other substances. The greater part 
' of the clay near London is of a bluish tint ; other kinds are 
I of reddish brown, brown, &c. 

^ Few mineral substances are of more importance to man 
I than clay ; its great use in the arts arises from the valuable 
property it possesses of becoming exti-emely hard when ex¬ 
posed to great heat. From its softness and ductility it can 
j be formed into any required shape, which is readily fixed by 
burning. Before the clay is made into vessels, sand or flint 
finely powdered is mixed with it (see China), which prevents 
it becoming cracked in burning. Vessels formed of baked 
clay are hard, brittle, opaque, and porous, permitting water 
slowly to pass through them; therefore, before use, they re¬ 
quire to be glazed. A description of this process is inserted 
under the article “ China.” The coarser kinds of clay are 
manufactured into bricks and tiles; the clay being shaped in 
moulds, is dried in the sun, and baked in kilns. 

Clay is also used to form the bottoms of ponds and canals 
to prevent the water draining away; as the soft mass it forms, 
when moistened, does not permit water to soak through it. 

All soils, except sandy heaths and deserts, contain a large 
portion of clay mixed with the sandy and vegetable substances 
that form the soil. Good loamy soils, when dry, contain 
at least one-half their weight of clay. 

Coal. —Coal is the name used by us to signify a black, 
brittle, inflammable substance, found sometimes near the 
surface, but usually at a considerable depth under the earth. 
The word was originally applied to any substance used for 
fuel, and in this sense it occurs frequently in the New Testa¬ 
ment. The general use of mineral, or sea coal, as it was 
I formerly termed, from being brought to us by sea, did not 
prevail in London until little more than 200 years ago. From 
its stony appearance, and being dug out of the ground, 
coal is usually considered as a mineral substance; but there 
is no doubt of its being the remains of vegetables. It is 
not uncommon to find pieces of coal distinctly fibrous like 
charcoal. In many mines the remains of trees and })lants 
are found only partly converted into coal; even the leaves 







18 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


and fmits are sometimes seen. So perfect are many of these 
parts, that it has been ascertained that coals are the remains 
of such plants as fir-trees and feras, &c., of a kind that we 
are not now acquainted with. Coal is found in beds or layers, 
deep under the surface of the ground ; each of the layers is 
usually from three or four, to eight or nine feet in thickness, 
and they lie one over the other separated by layers of rock or 
stone. Sometimes the stone between the layers of coal is 
ii’OEstone, which is also valuable. 

The process of obtaining coal is termed mining, and as the 
expense is very great, mines are usually w'orked by a company 
of persons. When by boring dowai into the earth coal is dis¬ 
covered, an immense w'ell, eight or ten feet in diameter, is 
dug, and, if necessary, the sides of it are bricked all round. 
This well is called a shaft. When it is dug down to a layer 
or seam of coal, they make large passages about twelve feet 
broad, and as high as the layer of coal is. There are usually 
two of these passages made at first, extending in opposite 
directions ; the coal w hich is dug out of them being drawn to 
the surface by a large steam-engine ])laced there. From these 
two large passages ])roceed others of a smaller size at right 
angles; and at last a large number of passages are formed 
(like streets in a town), and they are sej)ai’atcd by immense 
square pillars of coal left to su])port the roof. If the mine 
becomes larger, a second shaft has to be dug, in order that 
all the foul and ex])losive air that is frequently given out by 
the coal, should be carried out by a thorough draught of 
pure air, which is caused to rush dovra one shaft, and up the 
other. The draught is directed by doors being shut across 
})assages, wdiere it is not required. 

The dangers of working the mines are many: sometimes 
the roof falls in, crushing the workmen; sometimes large 
springs open into the mine, drowning many; and gas escapes 
from the coal, which takes fire from some light coming in 
contact with it, killing all in the mine; or a sufibcating gas 
chokes them. The explosions are now much })revented by 
the use of a lamj) inclosed in a case of ware gauze, which 
prevents the flame passing out so as to set fire to the gas. 

Coal is a black brittle substance, inflammable at a red heat 
when it bums with much flame, from the gas that is formed! 
The use of coal for fuel is very great, not only for our houses. 


MINERALS. 


19 


but for manufactures; without coal no iron could be ob¬ 
tained, nor glass, nor ])orcelain, nor, in fact, any of the nume¬ 
rous things formed by the aid of furnaces. Besides tliese pur¬ 
poses to which coal is a])plied, when heated iii iron vessels, it 
gives out gas, which is carried by iron ])i])cs to the houses in 
towns, and is of great use in lighting the streets at night. 
1 After the coal has given out its gas, it is still very valuable, 
as it burns with a clear fire without flame or smoke; in this 
state it is called coke. From the gas factory, tar and seve- 
' ral other substances are produced. 

Emery Powder. —Emery is a very hard opaque grey 
; mineral, commonly found in large shapeless masses at the 
, foot of several mountains in the islands of the Grecian Archi¬ 
pelago. Small quantities are also found in our own country 
in iron mines, &c. 

Emery is a substance of extreme hardness; it is in conse¬ 
quence of its possessing this property that it is so very 
useful in the arts as a polishing material. To fit it for this 
pur})Ose, it is powdered in large iron mortars, or steel mills; 
the finer parts are then separated by mixing the powder with 
water, and allowing the coarser particles to subside, when 
the water containing the finer powder is poured off, and after 
long standing the latter sinks to the bottom. By this opera¬ 
tion emery is reduced to a very fine powder; so fine, that it 
will ])olish metcals, &c. without scratching them. Emery 
})owder thus formed is used in various arts. By lapidaries, 
for grinding and polishing precious stones; by opticians, for 
polishing glasses ; by cutlers, in finishing their instruments; 
and also by masons in polishing marble. 

Emery is also used in making emery paper. A strong 
cement is spread upon strong coarse paper, and powdered 
emery of the requisite degree of fineness sprinkled on it. 
When dry, this paper is much used in cleaning iron instru¬ 
ments of various kinds. 

Flint.— Flint is a mineral substance of extreme hardness, 
but very brittle, and, when broken, yielding sharp-edged 
pieces. When struck against iron or steel, its sharp edge 
and excessive hardness enable it to cut away a piece of the 
iron, which, being heated to redness by the force of the blow. 



20 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


flies off in a bright spark. Hence, before the introduction of 
chemical matches, a flint and steel, with some easily inflamed 
tinder and a suljihur match, were the usual means employed 
in obtaining an artiflcial light in this country. Flints are 
usually of a blackish brown colour, and, when thin, are semi¬ 
transparent. They are found in immense numbers amongst 
the beds of chalk in this and all other countries. When 
heated to redness, flints lose their colour, becoming greyish 
white and perfectly opaque. In this state, they are exten¬ 
sively employed in the manufacture of all kinds of potteiy 
ware. (See China.) 

Flints are used in countries where they are large and abun- 
dant, for building houses, &c.; for which purpose they are 
well adapted, as the rough surface gives a firm hold to the 
mortar, and their indestructible nature resists every change of 
weather. They are also used for road making, but for this 
purpose they are not well fitted; as, from their extreme brit¬ 
tleness, they are rapidly ground to dust; at the same time, 
their hardness wears away with great quickness the shoes of 
the horses, and eyen the iron tire of the wheels. 

They are also employed in gun-locks for lighting the pow¬ 
der in the pan. For this purpose, they are cut into a pecu¬ 
liar shape by the dexterous blows of hammers and the use of 
a chisel, which is fixed, the flint being struck on the edge. 
So expert do the workmen become by practice, that one man 
will in three days make a thousand gun flints. 

Salt. —The yaluable substance knorni by the name of salt 
is found in the greatest abundance in nature, and in situa¬ 
tions where both man and animals can easily obtain it. 
Thus the waters of the ocean contain a yery large quantity, 
and in order to produce it from them, nothing more is re¬ 
quired than to allow the water to evaporate, when the salt 
remains behind. In this manner an immense quantity is 
annually procured in England and in other countries. 

Formerly the water was allowed to evaporate in the open 
air, aided by the heat of the sun; but the i)lan now pursued 
is to boil away the water in metal pans. In the interior of 
different countries a great number of salt springs and lakes 
arise, from the waters of which salt is obtained in a similar 
manner. 


1 


MINERALS. 21 

Large solid beds or layers of this substance, several yards 
in depth, are found in many places under the surface of the 
earth; when thus found, it is called rock salt. 

In England it occurs in the greatest abundance at North- 
wich, in Cheshire. It is found there in two layers; the one 
nearest the surface is about thirty to fifty yards under ground, 
and it is about twenty yards thick. The salt, however, is 
coloured, like coarse sugar candy, and is rendered impure by 
being mixed with earthy substances. Below this is a layer of 
stone, in its turn resting ujion a bed of salt forty yards 
thick, which is generally perfectly transparent and colour¬ 
less. 

From these various sources 500,000 tons of salt are an¬ 
nually obtained for the consumption of England alone. 

From whatever source procured, salt, if pure, is a white 
crystalline solid, of a peculiar taste, readily soluble in water, 
to which it imparts its peculiar taste, and whose weight it 
increases. It is one of the most important minerals to man; 
its use as a wholesome seasoning to food is well known. It 
has also the valuable property of keeping flesh from putrefac¬ 
tion, and it is therefore emj)layed in preserving meat for sea 
voyages. 

It is used in immense quantities in curing or drying fish, 
as cod, herrings, &c. 

It is extremely beneficial to domestic cattle, and is much 
liked by them; the fattening effects of the food in the salt 
marshes of the coast is well known. The wild animals of 
many parts often perform long migrations in order to obtain 
this substance. 

Salt is used as a manure in some peculiar soils, and also 
for the glazing of very coarse earthenware; and in all che¬ 
mical factories it is extensively required. 

That a substance so invaluable to man should be so abun¬ 
dant, and so universally distributed, is one of the proofs which 
so continually present themselves, of the foresight and good¬ 
ness of the Creator. 

Sand. —A hard granular mineral substance, formed of the 
same material as flint; which occurs in some places on the 
surface of the grouud, in others under the surface; it is also 
found forming the beds of many rivers, and the shores of the 
sea. 





22 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


\\liere the surface of the earth is to a great extent covered 
with sand, it is called a desert, or downs. 

Deserts of sand of an immense extent are extremely com¬ 
mon in Africa, Arabia, and Persia. The sands forming them 
are blown about by the high winds like the waves of the sea, 
burying caravans of travellers and camels. Other dangers 
assail those who venture across these deserts ; springs seldom 
occiu”, and if the water they carry with them is exhausted, 
all must perish of thirst. 

In our own country downs of sand are not uncommon. 
They are formed by the waves of the sea, driving a quantity 
of fine sand on the beach; this is carried forward by the 
wind when it blows inland, and is de})osited. Sometimes 
even a large tract of country is thus converted into downs, 
and villages and towns have been gradually overwhelmed by 
mounds of sand. This event occurred some years ago to the 
town of Findhorn, on the coast of Moravshire, where a fertile 
and highly productive district of ten square miles in extent 
has been rendered barren by being gradually covered with 
drifting sand. The same effect also takes place on the west 
coast of the Hebrides; the inhabitants, however, partly suc¬ 
ceeded in preventing it, by setting reeds and grass in the 
sands; these take root, and thus bind the sands together. 

Sand is a material of great value for many purposes in the 
arts. The whiter kinds are used extensively in making glass 
(see glass). The coarser kinds are used for making mortar 
(see mortar); and also in brickmaking ; for manuring heavy 
clay soils, which they render lighter and more pervious to water, 
and thus allow the roots of plants to penetrate more freely. 

Sand is also useful in cleaning and scouring, by its gritty 
nature helping to remove dirt; and some kinds are used to 
make the moulds in which melted metal is cast for cannon, 
and in which iron, brass, and other metal articles are cast. 

Slate. —Slate is a kind of stone not crystallized, but 
foliated, or composed of flat layers, which may be easily sejia- 
rated from one another. In colour it varies very much ; the 
most common is bluish black; other kinds are green, brown, 
bluish, &c. Slate is not a very heavy stone, it being about 
three times the weight of water. 

The slate used in this country is dug out of the open 


MINERALS. 


23 


quarries of Yorkshire, Westmoreland, Wales, and Derbyshire, 
&c. It is obtained in large flat pieces by means of wedges ; 
and these are again divided into thinner })ortions, by the use 
of smaller wedges. Some of the larger and thicker pieces 
are sawn, like stone, into the required slia})e. 

Slate, from its lightness and its being im})ervious to water, 
is much used for covering roofs of houses, &c. When aj)- 
plied in this way, it is split into layers of the required thick¬ 
ness ; these are pierced with holes and fastened with ])egs to 
the laths of the roof, the top ones being made to overlap the 
lower (like the scales of a fish) so as to keep out the rain. 
For this pur])ose ])ieces are taken that are very free from 
])ores, smooth, and that s])lit readily. It is ascertained to be 
free from pores by placing a j)ortion in water, weighing 
it both before and after it is {)ut in; if it is found to have 
increased much in weight by absorbing water, it is not used 
for roofing, as such slate not only allows the rain water to 
soak through and rot the wood work underneath, but it be¬ 
comes covered with mosses, which also retain the moisture. 

AVriting slates are made from the smoothest pieces; these 
are split when fresh from the quarry, as they divide more 
readily at that tmie. They are then ground smooth with fine 
sand, and in that state used for writing on with slate ])encil, 
which is nothing more than the softest and most splintery 
kind of slate cut up into the required size. 

Slate is now getting into use for many purposes to which 
it was not formerly applied; thus it is sometimes used for 
grave-stones, chimney-pieces, for paving, and also for making 
water cisterns : for which ])urpose the less absorbent slabs 
are well adapted, as they neither absorb the water, or even 
grease, should it come in contact with them. For this reason 
slate cannot be painted, as the paint readily peals off when 
dry. Inkstands, slabs, and various small articles, are now 
frequently made from slate. 

Hearthstone. —Hearthstone is the soft stone which, 
from its friable nature, is emjiloyed in whitening the doorways 
and hearths of houses. It is a kind of limestone, less pure 
than chalk and considerably harder. 

The great use of the various limestones to man is for the 
production of lime, which they all yield when burnt, though 


24 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


of various degrees of purity. The furnaces in which limestone 
is burnt are termed limekilns. They are filled with alteinate 
layers of limestone and turf, or more frequently coal. The 
latter being set lire to, heats the limestone to whiteness, anej 
converts it into caustic and acriel lime. As thus obtained, 
lime is of immense value to man; being employed in the 
manufacture of mortar (which see)—cements—in the prepara¬ 
tion of leather—in bleaching—and to a vast extent in agri¬ 
culture, as a manure. The harder kinds of limestone are 
extensively employed as building stones, under the names of 
Hath stone, Portland stone, &c. &c. They are conveniently 
used for this jnirpose, being easily sawn of the required sha])e; 
but, in point of durability, they do not equal many other 
stones. 




25 


MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. 


Alum. —I'his substance is found, occurring naturally, near 
volcanoes. It is also jirepared by a chemical process, from a 
kind of bluish-grey slaty mineral, found at Paisley, and at 
Whitley, in Yorkshire, at which places are the chief alum 
factories of this kingdom. 

Alum is a saline substance, soluble in water; and on the 
water being allowed to evaporate, it is left in the form of 
crystals, in which state it is usually sold in the shops. 

It contains so much w^ater—nearly half its weight—that 
I when heated it melts, and the water gradually boils aw ay, 
leaving a dry wUite pownler, which is sold by the chemists as 
!burnt alum. The taste of alum is astringent, but at the same 
jtime sweetish. It is transparent and colourless. The uses of 
jalum in the arts are very numerous, as, in the manufacture of 
imany colours for painters; in dyeing, and in printing calico, 
jin preparing some kinds of leather it is much employed (see 
Leathers). Candle makers use it to harden and whiten tallow*; 
'and bakers to wUiten the bread; the latter should rather 
be termed an abuse than a use, as it is injurious to the 
health. Alum is a valuable medicine, acting as a pow^erful 
astringent; hence it is used, when dissolved, as a gargle in 
relaxed sore throats; and it is also employed to stop bleeding 
from leech-bites. 

China, Earthenware, and Red Ware. —These three 
substances, which are sometimes classed together under the 
name of pottery, are so much alike in their composition and 
manufacture that it would occasion great repetition to describe 








26 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


them separately. It will be better, therefore, to treat of their 
manufaeture together, and state the points in which they 
differ afterwards. 

The ingredients used in making pottery, are clay and flint. 
The quality of the clay is of great inq)ortance; that used in 
England is ])rincipally brought from Dorsetshire and Devon¬ 
shire (although, for making china, a very suj)erior kind is ob¬ 
tained from Cornwall). The cla}^ is mixed, usually, by the 
aid of machinery, with very ])ure water, until it is of the 
thickness of cream. This mixture is strained through lawn 
sieves, in order jierfectly to separate from it any grit. The flints 
used are burnt in a kiln, and, whilst red hot, thrown into cold 
water; this renders them brittle, and, consequently, more 
easily ground. When they are reduced to pow der, which is 
done in a mill, they are mixed w ith a large quantity of water, 
and much stirred, or agitated; this causes the finer parts to 
mix with the w ater, while the coarser powder settles at the 
bottom. The water and the fine jiowder are then drawn off, 
and fdlow'ed to stand for some time, when the latter settles 
at the bottom, and the greater part of the water is pom’ed 
away. 

The potter then mixes together, in a large vat, the requisite 
proportions of the clay and water, and the flint and water. 
When the wdiole is thoroughly mixed, it is passed several 
times through a fine silk sieve, not only to ensure its freedom 
from grit, but also its perfect uniformity. This mixture of 
clay, flint, and w^ater (which is called slip) is then jmmped 
into a boiler, or kiln, and the water evaporated, or boiled 
away, until the mass is left of a pro])er consistence for work¬ 
ing. As soon as removed from the kiln, it is beaten with 
wooden mallets, in order to expel any air it may contain, and 
is then fit for being formed into the different vessels for 
wdiich it is designed. 

The clay thus prepared is formed into the shape of the 
vessels required, in three difterent ways. The first method is 
called by the workmen throw ing, and is performed by means 
of the potter’s wheel. This consists of a small round table, at 
w’hich the potter sits, and wdiich is turned round and round 
by an assistant w orking a handle. On this table, or wheel, 
articles of a circular or round form are made. A lump of pre¬ 
pared clay, and flint, of the proper size, is thrown upon the 


MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. 


27 


centre of this table, which is then pnt in motion by a woman, 
and as it turns round with the clay, the throw er, or })otter, 

!fashions or moulds the latter into the desired shape, forming 
a hollow' in it, by pressing with his thumbs in the middle, 
draw ing it out at the edges, and moulding it until it is finished. 
The table, or wheel, is then stopped, and the article is sepa¬ 
rated from it bv drawing a w ire underneath. It is then ear- 
ried to a wareroom to harden. 

The articles made by the potter’s wheel are rough, and not 
finished in shape. .A teacup, for instance, has not the foot nicely 
formed; it is not hollow underneath, or round at the edge. 
In order to give the articles the exact shape required, they are 
! timned in a lathe, like that used by wood turners, and cut and 
rsmoothed with iron instruments. Such vessels as require 
handles and s])Outs, are taken, after being turned, to the 
handler, who forms the handles, &c. in moulds, and fixes them 
on with soft clay, or slip. There are, however, many oval or 
angular articles, such as cream jugs, &c. that cannot be formed 
by the potter’s wheel; these are made by pressing the soft 
clay into moulds of the required shape, made of plaster of 
paris. 

Plates, saucers, and other flat articles, are formed by 
pressing the soft clay on moulds, which are the shape of the 
inside of the saucer, &c., and smoothing the outside. 

In whatever manner the vessels are formed they are allow ed 
some time to become dry, when they are carefully placed in 
large clay boxes, called seggars, and baked in an oven, or 
kiln. When first put in, the fire is moderate, but it is after¬ 
wards increased, until the whole is brought to a white heat. 
Baking the article occupies about forty-eight hours, and the 
loven is allow'ed gradually to cool for twenty-four hours before 
iit is opened. 

j The pottery, after baking, is hard and fim, but, at the 
same time, porous, and not waterproof. In this state it is 
jl called biscuit, or biscuit porcelain. 

i‘ The next operation, is to form on it the patterns w hich are 
to ornament it. This is done by first printing the patterns in 
the desired colours, on tissue paper. The pattern is then cut 
out from the sheet of paper, and pressed upon the vessel, w hich 
being porous, absorbs the colour; the tissue paper is then 
iwashed oflf, and the colour dried in by heat. 

I D 2 










28 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


To render these porous vessels fit for holding liquids, they 
must be glazed : this is done by dipping them in a liquid, which 
is generally formed of white lead, ground flint, and water. 
They are then heated in the glazing oven to a sufficient degree 
to nielt the glaze, which runs over and covers the surface, ren¬ 
dering it impervious to water. 

The difference between china, earthenw^are, and red ware, is 
simply owing to the different kinds of clay and other materials 
used. For china, a very pure white clay is necessary : this is 
obtained from Cornwall. In the manufacturing, the china is 
so highly heated as nearly to melt; thus it becomes semi¬ 
transparent. For earthenware, a less pure clay is obtained 
from Dorset; and for the coarse red ware, a large portion of 
common red clay is used. 

Chloride of Lime. —This substance is formed by 
placing fresh burnt lime in chambers or closed vessels, wdiere 
it is exposed to a gas called chlorine; wffiich it absorbs in 
great quantit}^, and acquires its peculiar odoiu'. The gas 
chlorine is distinguished by several remarkable properties; it 
possesses a most peculiar odour, it destroys all vegetable 
colours placed in it—hence its great use in bleaching; it 
also removes infection, or any unpleasant smell arising from 
decaying substances. It is, if breathed in small quantities, 
extremely wffiolesome; but if much of it is mixed with the 
air, it is irritating to a very great degree. The use of chloride 
of lime depends on the fact that if exposed to the air, it gives 
out its chlorine: and in such a gradual manner, that the un¬ 
pleasant effects of the gas are not produced, whilst enough is 
set free to destroy bad smells, or prevent infection. If it 
is required to purify a room more rapidly, some acid, such as 
oil of vitriol and water, may be added, when the gas is given 
out much more rapidly. 

It is recommended that all school-rooms in close and 
crowded districts should be fumigated with this powerfully 
disinfecting gas once a w'eek at least. If after school-hours 
a small quantity, such as an ounce or two, of chloride of lime 
be ]ilaced in a saucer, and a small quantity of oil of vitriol, 
with three times its bulk of water, be added to it, chlorine is 
given out; if then the doors, &c. be closed, the room will be 
completely purified by the morning. If not done in ordinary 


MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. 


29 


periods, it is the hounden duty of all persons in authority 
oyer schools to see that during the prevalence of infectious 
disorders, the school-room be not the means of conveying 
death into many families. This may be readily and etfec- 
tually accom])lished by fumigating with the gas as described. 
Immense quantities of chloride of lime are used in bleaching 
calicoes, linen, &c. &c. 

Glass. —White Glass, and Green Bottle Glass .—Glass is 
an artificial mineral substance, made by melting together 
sand or flint, and an alkali, either potash or soda. The in¬ 
vention has been known to man many hundred years, perhaps, 
before the Christian era. Neither the date nor the mode of 
its discovery are certain, though it is sometimes stated that it 
was found out by accident; and that some sailors making 
a large fire on the sea beach, the ])otash contained in the 
ashes of the wood they used united by the heat with the 
sand of the beach and melted into glass. This occurrence 
is supposed to have taken place on the coast of Syria, where 
it is certain that glass was first manufactured. 

In England the manufacture of glass is now' brought to as 
great a degree of perfection as in any other country. The 
materials used for flint or white glass are sand, potash, the 
preparations of lead, termed red lead, and litharge; with a 
small quantity of some other mineral substances. These, after 
being well purified, are perfectly mixed, and are then melted 
together; being exposed to an intense heat in large mel^ig 
pots made of clay, and built into an immense furnace. The 
sand and potash are the essential articles in the making of 
the glass ; but the lead is added in large quantities, as it is 
found to make the glass melt much more readily, also to 
give it greater brilliancy, and to render it less liable to crack. 
When these ingredients are thoroughly melted and united 
(w'hich process usually takes two or three days) the mouth of 
the melting pot is opened, and the liquid glass within is ready 
to be formed into any shape desired, by the workmen. The 
mode adopted is, to take on the end of an iron tube some of 
this substance, which is then in a moist, tenacious, and plastic 
state, and to blow through the tube and roll the soft mass 
on flat iron plates, pressing it with various shaped tools. The 
workman at last fashions it to the shape desired, which it 

D 3 



MINERAL KINGDOM. 


no 

retains when cold. Perhaps no other substance known conic 
he moulded into such a variety of forms; for melted g:lasg 
seems to exceed all things in its ductility and tenacity. 
Its consistence is something between that of soft putty and 
treacle, neither solid nor liquid, hut capable of being bent, 
blown out, ])ulled, pressed, twisted, or cut, so as to assume at 
the will of the workman the various forms required. When 
the glass articles are made, they have to be annealed, that is, 
cooled slowly in an oven formed for that purpose; if they 
did not undergo this process, they would crack on the 
slightest blow, and would not bear warm liquids, &c. The 
qualities that render glass so valuable when manufactured, 
are its hardness, and the polish of its surface, which renders 
it so readily cleaned ivhen soiled—its beautiful transparency, 
enabling us to perceive its contents when it is used to form 
vessels for liquids—its being so iucorrosive that it is not acted 
upon by any ordinary substances, not even by the strongest 
acids, with one exce})tion. Its value, again, as a substance 
for glazing windows, dejxmds on its transparency and its in¬ 
solubility ; so that whilst it admits the light, and even the 
warmth of the sun, it perfectly excludes the wind and wet, 
and even to a great extent the cold. It is, in fact, only the 
circumstance of its being so common, so constantly before our 
eyes, that renders us usually insensible to its exceeding value 
and its great beauty. 

Although glass readily allow^s the light to pass through it, 
yet when it is made into certain shapes it has a great effect 
upon the light, sometimes bringing it into one point, &c.; 
such pieces of glass are termed lenses, and are used for 
making telescojies, microscopes, &c., and singly for spectacles. 

The dark green glass of which wine bottles are made, is 
merely glass of the coarsest kind ; it being made of the com¬ 
mon dark coloured sand, and the coarsest alkali. 

Key. —The use of this instrument is so well knowm, as 
scarcely to need description. Its value depends upon the 
circumstance of the lock it is made to open being so formed, 
by a number of thin pieces of metal, termed wards, ])laced in 
its interior, that the key, to open it, must have a part filed 
away to correspond with each ward, so that it may turn 
round and push back the catch or bolt. The paits of the key 


MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. 


31 


are termed by the maker the bow, the shank, and the bit. 
Until within about thirty years, keys were made by being 
hammered out of a bar of hot ii’on on an anvil; they are 
now formed by placing a piece of iron of the required 
shape, previously heated, under a powerful stain)), which 
forms the bow, the shank, and bit; the key is then tiled 
smooth, the shank bored or turned, and is then sold to the 
locksmith under the name of a blank. It is from these blanks 
of various sizes that the locksmith prepares keys, filing the 
bits so as to suit any lock they are making. 

IMortar. —iMortar is a substance which, from possessing 
the power of hardening gradually from a soft state, is used for 
the |)urpose of cementing together the bricks or stone used 
in building. 

IMortar is formed of lime, fresh burnt and slaked, and sand; 
water being added in sufficient quantity to make the whole 
mixture a soft paste, when the materials are well worked up 
together. The jirojiortions emjiloyed are usually one bushel 
of lime and one bushel and a half of sand; but, for particular 
puiqioses, these quantities are varied. As thus formed, the 
mortar is s|)read between the bricks, &c. of a building, and, 
by being exposed to the air, it gradually hardens, from the 
water evajiorating, and also from the lime undergoing a change 
which renders it insoluble in water; therefore, mortar which 
has hardened or set, as it is termed, is not softened when 
exposed to wet, hence its great use in building. 

Needles. —These small, but at the same time exceedingly 
valuable instruments, are made in immense numbers in this 
country, both for home use and for exportation. The materias 
from which they are made is soft steel wire of the required 
thickness : this"is bought by the needle-maker in large coill, 
each of which contains enough wire to make many thousand 
needles; the coil is divided into pieces the length required 
for two needles, which is usually about three inches ; large 
shears are used capable of cutting 100 wires at once. Many 
thousands of these pieces are then taken and made into bun¬ 
dles, being kept together by a ring of steel at each end; they 
ai'e then placed in a furnace and heated to redness, when they 
are taken out and laid on a flat iron plate; the worker then 


32 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


with a steel bar rolls the wires (still kept together by the 
rings at eaeh end). 

After this stage of the manufacture, the wires are perfectly 
straight, of the required length for two needles, blunt at each 
end, and dull from having been heated in the furnace. The 
next stej) is to grind a point at each end of the wire : this is 
done very quickly by the aid of a small grindstone revolving 
very rapidly. The grinder takes from fifty to 100 of these 
wires between the palm and fingers of his hands ; and as he 
presses them against the quick moving stone, he so guides 
his fingers as to cause all the wires to roll round, and thus be 
ground to a point. So expert do the grinders become by 
practice, that they will point a handful of these wires, about 
100 in number, in half a minute, or about 10,000 in an hour. 
Whilst bein<; s:round, each wire of the 100 sends out a stream 
of sparks, and together they form a bright glare of light. 
Pointing the wires is the most unhealthy part of the manu¬ 
facture ; for the fine dust is carried into the lungs of the 
workmen, and destroys them in a few years, not many living 
beyond the age of forty. 

The wires thus pointed at eacfi end, are taken to the stamp¬ 
ing machine ; which is nothing more than a heavy hammer 
of about thirty ])Ounds weight moved up and down by a 
lever worked by the foot. The under surface of this hammer 
is so formed, that when the workman lets it fall upon the 
wire midway between the tw'o ends or points, it forms the 
gutters or little grooves in w^hich the eye is afterwards made ; 
and the anvil on wiiich the wire rests w'hen the hammer 
strikes it, is likewise so formed that it makes the two grooves 
on the other side of the wire. 

Besides making the grooves, the stamper, or hammer, 
partly makes the eyes for the two needles. The wires then 
go to a boy, who takes a number of them in his left hand, 
spreading them out flat, w'hilst with his right he w'orks a 
press moving two hard steel points or piercers; and as he 
places each wire beneath the points, he works the press, and 
the points come down and cut out the eyes for the tw^o 
needles. Each wire now nearly resembles two rough unpo¬ 
lished needles fastened together in a straight line, by their 
heads; and as it would take much time to divide each wire 
separately into two needles, a little contrivance is adopted by 


MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. 


33 


which many are divided at once. A boy takes two fine wires 
in his ri^ht hand, and, holding them close together, he spits 
or threads the double needles upon them, and they arc then 
taken to the filer, who separates each bundle into two halves, 
each of which consists of a number of rough unpolishecl 
needles strung on a fine wire. As it is possible that during 
i the numerous operations the needles may have become bent, 
they are rolled under a steel bar to straighten them : this 
process is done by hand. They are then hardened by being 
heated in a furnace, and then suddenly plunged into cold 
water or oil. After hardening, they have again to be heated 
to temper them, so that they may not be brittle. They are 
again straightened by being hammered on small bright anvils 
with tiny hammers by girls; and now they are finished all 
but the polishing and packing up. The first is accomplished 
by taking about 20 or 30,000 needles, laying them straight 
side by side u{)Oii a piece of thick canvass; they are then 
smeared with oil and emery. The canvass is rolled uj), and 
rubbed under a press like a mangle, for many hours; after 
polishing they are examined, and the broken ones removed. 
Should drilled-eyed needles be required, they undergo another 
operation, the object of which is to take off the rough edge 
of the e 3 ^e, and to polish the head more completely : but this 
is only done to the finest kinds; lastly, they are counted 
in bundles of twenty-five, and inclosed in small papers for 
sale. 

The chief place for the manufacture in England is Red- 
ditch, in Worcestershire, where, it is stated, 70,000,000 per 
week are manufactured. 

Nails. —Nails are small instruments (usually made of iron) 
used for the pm-pose of fastening together sejiarate pieces of 
wood, or other substances. Each nail consists of three im¬ 
portant parts, the point, the shank or body, and the head. The 
use of the ])oint is to enable the nail to enter the wood more 
readily, when struck by the hammer, and also to lessen the 
probaliility of its cracking, or splitting the wood. The shank 
or body of the nail is usually left somewhat rough, so that 
when driven into the wood it is firmly retained. The head of 
the nail also offers a greater security against slipping, and it is 
variously shaped, according to the uses for which the nail is 





34 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


required. Those ealled tacks, used for nailing down car¬ 
pets, &c., are furnished with flat round heads, in order that 
they may, without cutting, hold the car])et securely; whilst 
the nails used by carpenters to fasten down the flooring ol 
rooms have small heads that can be readily struck so far 
into the w'ood as not to project and cause irregularities on the 
floor. Nails are generally made by hand, by persons who 
work with a blacksmith’s forge, having the usual description 
of bellows and hammers, of a larger or smaller size, accord¬ 
ing to the size of nails to be made. 

The persons pursuing this employment, whether men or 
women, are termed nailors. They use iron which has been 
rolled at the foundry into thin rods. One end of these rods 
is heated in the forge, and then hammered on an anvil, whilst 
still soft, to a point; and the length of rod requisite to form a 
nail is then cut off, wdien the rod is immediately ])laced in the 
fire to be reheated, during which process the head of the nail 
cut off is formed by hammering the nail into a hole in a steel 
instrument called a bore, the hole being the shape of the head 
required. The making of a nail takes a much less time than 
the description of the operation. One man has been known 
to make 17,000 in one week; and the usual number of nails 
made by one workman in a week is 6000. 

The flat nails, called brads, are cut out of sheet iron by the 
aid of pow erful and complicated machinery. 

Knife. —Knives or cutting instruments of some descrip¬ 
tion have been used by man from the earliest ages of the 
world, both for slaughtering animals and cutting up food. &c. 
The knives at first made were probably of sharp shells, flints, 
or other hard stones; metals being then unknown. The 
knives mentioned in the earlier passages of Scripture were 
probably of this description. (Exod. vi. 25.) 

At the present day, knives are almost exclusively made of 
steel; the maker being termed a cutler. Clasp knives consist 
of several distinct parts—namely, the blade, the spring, the 
iron sides, and the scales. 

The blade is made out of a rod of steel: one end of this 
being heated to redness, is hammered to the shape required, 
and then cut off with the part to form the joint while hot. 
The small recess called the miil hole, for opening the blade. 


MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. 


35 


is made by means of a chisel of the shape required, which is 
struck upon it. The blades are hardened by heatimr them to 
redness, and plunging them into cold water, and they are 
afterwards tempered to prevent their being too brittle. The 
iron sides and the s})ring are also forged by the workmen. 
The scales (as they are termed), whether of iron, ivory, mo¬ 
ther-of-pearl, or wood, are then taken, and the whole, having 
been drilled to correspond in the places where the rivets are 
to ])ass through, are at first loosely pinned together with bits 
of wire ; and when each ]mrt is exactly fitted by filing, &c., 
the rivets are tightened by hammering. The sides and hack 
of the handle have now to be scraped and polished; this is 
done on a wheel, somewhat like a grindstone, covered with 
leather, on w hich is placed at first sand, and afterwards oil 
and rotten stone. The blade is lastly ground and polished, 
and the knife is then fit for use. 

The maker’s name is usually punched on when the steel is 
soft. The use of knives depends entirely on the excessive 
hardness of the steel with which the blades are formed; 
this allow s a very sharj) edge to be given to them, which is 
preserved for some time. 

Pin. —This small instrument, from its extensive use, is 
an important article of manufacture. It is stated that there 
are made in this country, for home use and exportation, 
more than 15,000,000 pins daily. 

The mode of making pins is as follows. A quantity of brass 
wire, of the requisite size, is first cleaned by soaking it in di¬ 
lute oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) and water; it is then 
straightened and cut into pieces a little longer than the length 
of six pins; these pieces are pointed at each end by a person 
who sits in front of tw'O small, but broad steel wheels, the 
rims of which are notched like a file, one coarsely, the other 
finer. Several of the pieces of wire are taken in the hand, 
and their ends being a))plied to the wheels, which are turned 
round with great rapidity, are ground to points. They are 
first commenced on the coarse wheel, then finished on the 
fine one. 

After both ends of the piece have been })ointed, one pin’s 
length is cut off from each end. The ends left are then 
pointed, and tw^o more pins’ lengths cut off, and so on, until 


36 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


each length is converted into six ])ointed pieces. The stems 
of the pins are then comjdete, and the next step is to form tlie 
head. This is effected by winding some sniall brass wire in 
a eoil round a i)iece of steel wire, the same size as that of the 
pins. (The smaller wire is coiled round the larger one in exactly 
the same manner as the thread is coiled round the wire used 
for stiffening caps and bonnets.) The coils of small wire are 
slipped off the large wire, round w'hich they were made, and 
the workman takes a dozen, or more, coils, and, with a ])air 
of shears, cuts them up into little short jheces of two turns 
or coils each, and these form the heads of the })ins. These 
heads are then annealed, by being made hot and thrown into 
water, and are ready to be fixed on the stems. This is done 
by the workman taking one of the stems, dipping the point 
of it into a bowl containing the heads, catching one on it and 
sliding it towards the other end; he then places it on a piece 
of steel, called a die, containing a hollow the exact shape of 
half the head, and presses down on the head, four or five 
times, another similar piece of steel. This operation fastens 
the head on the stem and gives it the required figure. 

The })ins are next cleaned, and tinned, by boiling them with 
a solution of tin. They are then taken out, dried and polished, 
by being well shaken in a bag with a quantity of bran, which 
is removed by shaking them in open trays, when the bran 
flies off, leaving the pins perfectly dry and clean, and ready to 
be fixed in the papers in which they are sold. Even this last 
simple operation is done by the aid of machinery. 

Putty is the cement used by glaziers for fastening the 
glass in the frames of windows. It is composed of linseed oil 
and whiting. The latter is well dried, pounded, and sifted, 
till it becomes a fine powder, perfectly free from grit; it is 
then gradually added to the linseed oil, which is warm. These 
ingredients are well stirred with a stick, till thoroughly mixed 
together, and, when sufficiently thick, are worked by the hand 
on a table, and afterwards beaten with a mallet, so as to be¬ 
come a smooth, soft, tenacious mass. 

The use of putty depends on the property it possesses 
of hardening gradually on exposure to the air; after some time 
it becomes almost as hard as stone. 

It is well adapted to the cementing of window frames, as it 


MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. 


,37 


not only secures the glass firmly, but perfectly closes the 
joint, so as to prevent draughts of air entering, or the rain 
from beating through the window. When used in very ex¬ 
posed situations a small quantity of white lead is added; this 
has the effect of rendering the putty more durable. 

Scissors. —Scissors are a well-known cutting instrument 
made of iron or steel. The manufacture of scissors consists, 
first, in the hammering out of the blades from a bar of lieated 
steel; the bow being roughly made by stretching a small hole 
made in the steel, by hammering it on to a conical anvil. 
Another workman then files the blades thus roughly forged 
into a more perfect shape, and bores the hole for the screw; 
they are then passed to the grinder, who forms the cutting 
part to its pro})er shape. The ground blades are then po¬ 
lished by women who rub them with oil and emery ])owder. 
After this they are put together by a screw, and fitted so as to 
work smoothly over one another. The screw is then removed, 
and the two blades being wrapped closely together with fine 
wire to prevent their warping, are heated to redness, har¬ 
dened by sudden cooling, and afterwards tempered. After 
these operations they again require grinding, so as to bring 
the edges to a perfect state. Another workman then adjusts 
the screws, filing the blades so as to make them open and 
shut easily. The parts which had become black by burning, 
are ])olished by very fine emery and oil, and again, for the 
third time, are ground, and the edges whetted; they are then 
ready for sale, previously to which the handles are some¬ 
times burnished by rubbing with a hard steel burnisher. 

Scissors that have ornamented handles are worked by the 
file and drill, one pair sometimes occupying a workman many 
days or even weeks in finishing the design. 

The edges of the blades of scissors are not ground sharp 
like those of a knife, therefore in cutting they bruise or crush 
much more than that iastiaiment. With thin objects, such as 
])aper, cloth, &c., this is not of importance, but it jirevents 
their being usefully employed in cutting thick substances. 

Thimble. —This well-known little instrument is worn on 
the middle finger of the right hand, by persons sewing, for 
the purpose of enabling them, easily and readily, to push the 

E 


38 


MINERAL KINGDOM. 


needle through the cloth, and of preventing its head injuring 
the finger. 

It is made so as to suit the shape of tlie end of the finger, 
being conical with a rounded head. 

The difference in the thimbles used by men is, that they 
are open at the end. Thimbles are usually made of some 
metal, and are pitted on the outside with small sunken dots, 
so that the needle should not slip. 

They are made out of a single piece of flat thin metal, which 
is cut or punched into a circular shape, about two inches in 
diameter; this is then, either by a machine or by a punch and 
hammer, forced into a hollow mould, or into several moulds, 
each smaller than the last, by which it acquires somewhat the 
shape desired. It is then fixed in a lathe, and turned smooth, 
inside and out, after wdiich the depressions are indented, 
or pressed in. Thimbles are frequently made of silver, which 
is, compared with iron, a soft metal, easily worked, and they 
are often ornamented on the outside with patterns, or initials, 
engraved or cut in. 

Watchspring. —The force employed to turn the key of a 
w^atch, in winding it, coils up very tightly a spiral spring, 
called the mainspring, which is enclosed in a brass box, and 
is not seen unless the watch be entirely taken to pieces. The 
force of this spring uncoiling itself, gradually moves the works 
of the watch. 

Both the main and hair spring of watches (the latter being 
a very small spring used to regulate the movements) are made 
from steel wire. The workman first hammers it out on an 
anvil, by which means it is flattened; it is then ground smooth 
on both sides; hardened by being heated, and cooled quickly; 
coiled up, and made to preserve its shape by being heated or 
tempered, as it is termed. 

This last heating gives it the blue colour it possesses, and 
also seems to increase its wonderful elasticity, and at the 
same time to preserve it from rusting so readily as it other¬ 
wise w^ould do. 


OBJECTS 


DERIVED FROM 

THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


CORN. 


Introduction.^ —The word corn is used as a general 
name for various kinds of grain—such as the grain of wheat, 
of barley, of oats, of rye, of maize, which last is chiefly used 
in America, and is frequently called Indian corn. Though so 
many different plants come under the name of corn, there are 
certain characters or marks by which they may be distin¬ 
guished, and which we will consider before we proceed to the 
description of each sort in particular. 

There are, likewise, certain words used in describing the 
culture of corn and its preparation for human food, which we 
will endeavour to define at once, and thus avoid repetition 
under each head. 

The various corn-plants are only grasses of a larger kind. 
They are all annual, the w hole plant, including the root, dying 
when the seed is perfected. 

The stem of all is hollow, and is generally called straw, but 
in some places culm. The inside of this hollow stem is di¬ 
vided by partitions, which form joints, one use of this struc¬ 
ture is evidently to strengthen the stem; from these joints 
or knots the leaves grow; embracing or forming a sheath to 
the stem for some distance. The leaves are all long and ta¬ 
per, and the veins run straight and parallel with one another 
from the base to the termination, instead of branching out, 
and uniting again so as to form a netw'ork, as is the case in 
most leaves. 

The blossoms of corn-plants are collected into a head, or 

E 2 




40 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


ear, or spike, and are not coloured like the flowers of most 
plants. Those })arts of the flower which, in most other 
plants, are large and coloured, are in these small and scale¬ 
like. When separated from the grain after the com is ripe, 
these parts are called the chaff or husk. 

The difference between corn-plants and the grasses is merely 
in size. The seeds of all grasses might be used as food, if they 
were large enough to make it worth while to collect them for 
that purpose ; no grass-plants, with the exception of one (the 
common darnel grass), being unwholesome. 

The cultivation of the soil is called agriculture, from a^er, a 
field, and cultura, culture. 

The measure generally used to express the size of fields, 
&c. is called an acre, and a field is said to consist of so many 
acres. 

The first operation necessaiy in agriculture is that of break¬ 
ing up the ground by means of a plough; this is called 
ploughing. The earth, when broken up, generally requires 
to be mixed with other substances (in order to increase its 
power of nourishing the seed), varying according to the nature 
of the soil. These substances (which are sometimes bone, 
sometimes lime, or fish, or seaweed, &c.) are classed under 
the word manure; and the process of mixing them with the 
soil is called manuring the land. When the land is properly 
prepared, the seed-corn is sown. 

This is done in one of two ways according to circumstances. 
In one, the sower takes a handful, and seatters the seed on 
the surface of the ground by swinging his arm in a circular 
direction, while he o})ens his hand at the same time. This is 
called sowing broadcast. The second method is to make 
holes in straight rows, into each of which seed is di'opped. 
This is called drilling or dibbling, and is, in most cases, pre¬ 
ferable to the first method; but in some soils it cannot be 
adopted. Each seed produces more than one stalk; the 
grain is then said to tiller. 

The growing plants produced in a field, thus prepared and 
sown, are called the crop. 

When ripe, the crop is cut dorni; this is called reajnng. 

The grain is beaten out from the husk by a process called 
threshing. 

The grain is then se])arated from the particles of husk with 


CORN. 


41 


which it is mixed, by means of a current of air strongly forced 
upon it. The chaff, being light, is blown away f the grain, 
being heavy, remains; this is called winnowing. 

The grain, thus cleaned, is next measured out in bushel 
measures. The number of bushels is then divided by the 
number of acres of land on which the corn grew, and the pro¬ 
duce is said to be so many bushels an acre. 

Grain is sometimes used without any other preparation 
than cleaning it; sometimes reduced to a mealy powder, 
called flour, according to the purposes for which it is required. 
The grain is ground in mills to reduce it to flour; and in the 
same mill, the flour or mealy portion is separated from the 
outer skin, which is called bran. 

Wheat. —Wheat is the most esteemed of all kinds of 
corn, and, where it can be cultivated, and the peo})le are not 
too poor to use it, is invariably preferred as food. In this 
country, two kinds of wheat are cultivated, and they are 
called, from the seasons in which they are sown, spring or 
summer wheat, and winter or Lammas wheat. 

Spring wheat is a much more delicate plant than winter 
wheat. The ear is more slender, and is reatiily known by 
being provided with long awns or beards. Its grain is smaller, 
and it is less productive; therefore it is seldom sown by the 
farmer, unless the winter cro]) fails, or the land cannot be got 
ready in time to sow the winter kind. 

It is not uncommon, in the case of a failure in a crop of 
winter wheat, to sow the spring wheat in April or May; as it 
may be depended on for producing a fair return in the follow¬ 
ing autumn. Sometimes, patches of spring wheat are sown 
amongst the winter kind, where the latter has partially failed. 
If this is done about the commencement of April, both kinds 
will ripen at the same time. 

Winter wheat is a more vigorous plant, and it is destitute 
of the long awn or beard. Some varieties of winter wheat are 
redder than others ; hence we hear of red and white wheat. 

Wheat is most commonly sown broadcast, though, of late 
years, the practice of dibbling has been introduced to a con¬ 
siderable extent. 

Wheat plants tiller very freely; the usual number of stalks 
arising from one grain is five, but sometimes many more. 

E 3 


42 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


The produce of wheat at the present time is about 24 to 28 
bushels aft acre. In those counties where manure is cheap 
and agriculture carried to a high state of perfection, a much 
larger quantity is produced. In Middlesex, for example, up¬ 
wards of 40 bushels are not unfrequent from a single acre. 

From every 12 bushels of w'heat one load of straw is usually 
obtained, which is made up into 36 parts, called trusses. The 
weight of a bushel of wheat is usually 60 jiounds. This, on 
being ground, yields 

Bread-Hour 47 pounds 
Pollard ... 8 
Bran .... 3 “ 

Loss in grinding 2 “ 

Total . . 60 

Barley. —Barley is more cultivated in this country than 
any corn, except wheat; for, although bread is not now made 
of it, as formerly, it is used very extensively for the making 
of fermented and spirituous liquors. 

Barley is a much more hardy grain than wheat. It comes 
more quickly to maturity, and in short dry summers ripens 
perfectly when the other grains do not. In Spain and the East¬ 
ern countries, two harvests of barley are collected each year. 
This fact explains a passage in Exodus (ix. 31), wdiere the 
plague of hail is mentioned—The flax and the barley w ere 
smitten : for the barley was in the ear.” . . “ But the wheat 
and the rye were not smitten; for they were not come up.” 
This event happened in March ; the first crop of barley was, 
therefore, nearly ripe, being sown the previous autumn; but 
the wdieat and the rye w ere not sufficiently advanced in grow th 
to be injured by the hail. 

In this country, barley is usually sowm in the spring, and 
reaped the following autumn. It thrives best in dry sea¬ 
sons. If there be much wet, it becomes sickly; and in very 
WTt seasons, the grains contained in the ear will sprout while 
the plant is yet in the ground ; so that each ear resembles in 
appearance a tuft of grass. 

Clover is often sown with barley ; the two crops grow ing at 
the same time. 



CORN. 


43 


The quantity of barley produced on an acre of land is from 
35 to 50 bushels. 

The shape of a grjiin of barley is well known; and from its 
tolerably uniform length, it has given name to one of our di¬ 
visions of the inch—namely, the third; it being reckoned that 
three barleycorns, placed end to end, make an inch. 

Each grain of barley ends in a long awn or beard, which is 
broken off in threshing. The uses to which barley is applied 
in this countiy, are chiefly for the formation of beer and s})irit. 
Some portion, however, is formed into j)earl barley, by grind¬ 
ing off the outer husk in mills adapted to that pur})ose. 

Barley is also used as food for poultry, and, when ground 
into meal, for fattening i)igs. 

At times, when wheat is dear, the labouring classes in the 
country mix barley flour with their wheat flour to make a 
cheaper kind of bread; but this food is by no means a favour¬ 
ite with them; as it is coarse, dry, and apt to become sour. 

The large quantity of 30,000,0()0 bushels of barley is yearly 
consumed in this country in brewing beer, for which it is 
prepared by a process called malting, or converting it into 
malt. This is performed by first steejfing the barley in water 
until it has become soft and swollen. It is then taken out to 
drain, and allow^ed to lie in heaps for forty hours; during 
which time each grain begins to grow, as it would if planted 
in the moist earth. To check the growth, the barley is then 
turned and spread out for some days; then heaped together 
again, and afteiwvards dried, by being spread out, on a wire or 
hair cloth, over a kiln; and as it is more or less dried, the 
colour is dark or light brown, and the malt is used for brew¬ 
ing porter or pale ale. 

In malting, barley undergoes the change which all seeds 
do in beginning to grow. The starch of the seed is con¬ 
verted into sugar; hence the taste of malt is sweet, and 
the liquor which is afterw ards made into beer, and has a bit¬ 
ter taste in consequence of the hops having been added to it, 
is, in the first instance, w hen the malt only has been boiled in 
water, extremely sw eet, and in that state is called sweet wort. 

Oats. —This grain is much more grown in northern than in 
southern countries; the oats of the south of England being 
very inferior to those of Scotland. In appearance, this corn 


44 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


differs much from wheat and barley; the grains are not arranged 
in a close ear, but form a loose eluster around the stem. 

This corn possesses the very great advantage of growing in 
places too cold and exposed for wdieat or barley; in dry 
and hot seasons, it does not floirrish, as the grain becomes 
husky, and contains little nourishment. 

Oats are sown by broadcast, in March or April; about 50 
or GO bushels are the usual produce of an acre. 

There are several kinds of oats—some are dark in colour, 
others light; some have an awm or beard, W'hile others are des¬ 
titute of such an appendage. 

Oats are by no means so nutritious a corn as wheat, or even 
barley; formerly they were used in the })reparation of in¬ 
toxicating drinks. In the southern parts of the kingdom, oats 
are chiefly used as food for horses, and in fattening poultry. 
Coarsely ground, they are ealled groats, (a contraction proba¬ 
bly of ground oats) and are much used for making gruel. In 
Scotland, oats are largely used as human food, both in the 
form of porridge and made into oaten cakes. These are much 
eaten in Lancashire also. Although not so nutritious as w'heat, 
oats are an extremely wholesome article of food. 

Rice. —Unlike most corn plants, the native country of rice 
may be fixed with certainty, it is, undoubtedly,|a production of 
the warmer regions of Asia, in some parts of which it is now 
found growing wild, and the seed is collected for use. From 
hence it has been can’ied by man over the greater part of Asia, 
part of Europe, and the continent of America, where it is now 
cultivated in immense quantities; it w'as introduced there 
about 150 years since. In appearance, the stalk and plant of 
rice may be said to resemble wheat, but the grain is bearded, 
and not arranged in a close ear. In fertility and abundance 
of produce, it much exceeds our English grains. In India 
they raise tw'O crops a year of 30 to GO bushels each, the or¬ 
dinary produce of an acre. The great peculiarity in the culture 
of rice is the large quantity of w ater it requires. In America, 
for instance, it is sown in the spring, in row's or trenches 
about 18 inches apart, and the ground is then flooded for some 
days; again, when the plant is but a few inches high, the 
water is allowed to flow over the land and remain for a fort¬ 
night; and a third time, shortly before the grain ripens, the 


CORN. 


45 


fields are again fiooeled, and remain so until the harvest. 
From the swampy condition in which the soil is kept, the 
cultivation of rice is a most unhealthy occupation, and, in 
America, it is left almost entirely to the care of the slaves, 
their masters frequently leaving the province during the time. 
Rice is grown in much the same manner in Italy; and also to 
an immense extent in the island of Ceylon, China, and India. 
In all these countries, the best rice fields are the low open 
grounds through which large rivers pass; in other situations, 
the waters of the small streams are caused to flow into 
artificial reservoirs, which are used for watering the grounds. 
On the grain becoming ripe, the water is th ained off, and the 
corn reaped with a sickle, the labourer being frequently knee- 
deep in the soft mud in which it grows. 

No grain supports the life of so large a number of persons 
as rice. The inhabitants of China, India, and a large portion 
of America, live chiefly upon it. In the south of India it forms, 
with a few s})ices called cimy, the whole food of an immense 
number of the inhabitants, and even the resident Europeans 
eat it with every meal. Rice consists almost entirely of starch; 
hence it cannot with advantage be baked into bread, as the 
dough is not tough enough to rise. It is, however, light, 
wholesome, and easilv digested. Rice is brought into this 
country in two forms: in the brownish husk, in which state it is 
called Paddy or Paddee, and with the husk ground off; for¬ 
merly, the se})arating the husk was chiefly ])erformed in India, 
by beating the rice in large earthen or stone mortars: it is 
now done by machinery taken from this country. But, at the 
present time, very large quantities of unhusked rice or paddee 
are brought to England; it is found that, from being pro¬ 
tected by the husk, the grain is less injured in the passage; 
and it is more perfectly cleared by the superior machines of 
this country. 

Although rice is not spoken of by name in the Holy Scri])- 
tures, it must have been known to the Sacred Historians, and 
it is most probable that its cultivation is alluded to in 
Eccl. xi. I, and Isa. xxxii. 20. 


46 


SPICES. 


The spices are vegetable substances which, from their aro¬ 
matic, pungent, stimulating qualities, and, in most cases, 
agreeable taste and odour, are used for flavouring food, and 
also to assist in preserving it. Taken in small quantities they 
are not unwholesome, as they assist digestion; in large quan¬ 
tities they are extremely hurtful. 

The s])ices are all foreign productions, procimed from 
tropical climates, chiefly the East and West Indies: not any 
of the plants that produce them will bear the cold of our 
climate. 

Allspice. —This spice is also named Pimento, and some¬ 
times Jamaica Pepper, from the island whence it is chiefly ob¬ 
tained; it is the berry of a tree somewhat resembling the 
myrtle in appearance. It grov. s to the height of 30 feet, the 
trunk being smooth, and much branched towards the top; the 
branches are thickly covered vdth a large number of shining 
evergreen leaves, which resemble, in size and appearance, those 
of the sweet bay. In July and August the trees are covered 
with a great number of small white flowers, contrasting beau¬ 
tifully with the dark green leaves, whilst the whole tree sends 
forth a rich, fragrant perfume. The allspice tree is chiefly grown 
in the island of Jamaica; it is there cultivated largely for the 
sake of its fruit, which is the berry we use as spice. These 
are plucked by hand before they are ripe, and dried in the 
sun until the seeds rattle inside wdien shaken. Dm’ins: the 
drying, the berries change in colom* from green to a reddish 
brow n. If they are allow ed to become ripe on the tree, they 
turn purple, and when dried are found to have lost their 
aromatic odour and flavour, and are useless as spices. The 
name of allsjjice is given to them because their taste and 
smell resemble that of a mixture of cinnamon, cloves, and 
nutmegs. 



SPICES. 


47 


Cinnamon. —This spice is the inner bark of a tree closely 
resembling the laurel, or sweet bay, a native originally of 
Ceylon, but which is now grown in the other parts of the 
East Indies, and also in Jamaica and other islands of the 
West Indies. The trees are usually left to grow unmolested 
until they are nine years old, at which time the young shoots, 
or branches, that are about three years old, are lopped off. 
The bark is then slit up on one side and removed from the 
branch, tied up in bundles until the next day, when it is 
loosened, and the skin or outer bark scraped off. It is then 
dried or rolled up into quills or pipes, about three feet long, 
which have a slit dowm one side where the bark was cut. The 
smallest quills are rolled up inside the larger; the whole are 
then tied up in bundles of 80 or 90 lbs. weight, and wrapped 
up in cloths, when they are ready for exportation. 

Cloves. —Cloves are the unopened flowers of a small ever¬ 
green tree that resembles in appearance the laurel or the bay; 
it is a native of the Molucca, or Spice Islands, but has been 
carried to all the warmer parts of the w^orld, and is now largely 
cultivated in the tropical regions of America. The flowers 
are small in size, and grow in large numbers in clusters 
at the very ends of the branches. The cloves we use are the 
flowers gathered before they have opened, and whilst they 
are still green. After being gathered they are smoked by a 
wood fire, and then dried in the sun. Each clove consists of 
tw'o parts, a round head, which is the four petals or leaves of 
the flower rolled up, enclosing a number of small stalks or 
filaments. The other part of the clove is terminated with 
four points, and is, in fact, the flower-cup, and the unripe 
seed-vessel. All these parts may be distinctly shown if a few 
cloves are soaked for a short time in hot water, when the 
leaves of the flowers soften, and readily unroll. The smell 
of cloves is very strong and aromatic, but not unpleasant; 
their taste, when nnmixed with other substances, is pungent, 
acrid, and lasting. Both the taste and smell of cloves de¬ 
pend on the quantity of oil they contain: this is so great, 
that it may be pressed out with the finger. Sometimes 
the oil is separated from the cloves before they are sold, and 
the odour and taste in consequence much weakened by such 
unfair proceeding. 


48 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


Ginger. —This spice is the produce of a plant grouing in 
both the East and West Indies. In its appearance it some¬ 
what resembles a reed, or sedge, but the stems arise from a 
root of exactly the same kind as the root of the sweet flag, 
or iris, that is so commonly grown in our gardens.* Like the 
root of this flower, that of the ginger-plant spreads and in¬ 
creases in size every year. From the upper surface of this 
root arises, in the spring, a green reed-like stalk, about two 
feet and a half high, which bears narrow lance-shaped leaves. 
The flowers of the plant, which are white and lilac, grow' on 
a separate stem. The ginger w'e employ as a spice is the 
root, to obtain which the plant is cultivated in much the same 
manner as potatoes are, and w'hen the stalks have withered, 
the roots are dug up. The best and soundest of them are 
selected, scraped quite clean, and carefully dried in the sun, 
when they are ready for exportation and use. The inferior 
roots are scalded in boiling w^ater instead of being scraped; 
and these w hen dried form wiiat is called black ginger, a very 
inferior kind. The colour of black ginger, as it is termed, 
is yellowish grey on the outside, and orange browm within; 
in shape it is thick and knotty. The best, or white ginger, 
being scraped in preparing it, is less in size, not being so thick 
or knotty; its colour is a light yellow, and its taste is much 
more pungent and aromatic than that of the black kind. 

Nutmegs and Mace. —These two spices are the produce 
of one tree, which is a native of the East Indies. The tree 
is not of large dimensions. Its fruit is of the same size as 
a peach; the outer rind, which resembles somewhat the green 
rind of a walnut (although it is much thicker), is smooth, 
pulpy, and bitter, and about half an inch thick. As the fruit 
ripens, this outside covering bursts, and discloses a thin 
bright scarlet membrane, which appears as if torn into nar¬ 
row branched slips. This membrane, when dried, is mace. 
It grows round the nut, wdiich consists of a thin, hard, dark- 
brown shell, enclosing an oily kernel, W'hich is the nutmeg. 
The nutmeg-tree is largely cultivated for the sake of these 


* This part is not, strictly speaking, the root of the plant, but a kind of. 
undergi ound stem; the tiaie roots, wliich consist of fibres, grow from its 
under smface, and penetrate the ground. 



SPICES. 


49 


spices. The fmit is gathered when ripe, the outer rind taken 
off, and thrown away. The mace is then carefully separated 
from the nut and dried. Daring the operation it loses its 
bright scarlet, and becomes of a reddish orange colour. It 
is then pressed into hags, and is ready for exportation. Mace, 
when good, is of a rather deep colour, very oily, with an 
agreeable aromatic odour, and a similar, though somewhat 
bitter taste. After the mace has been removed, the nuts 
are dried, first in the sun, and then over a fire, until the 
kernel has so shrunk as to rattle in the shell when shaken. 
The latter is then broken, and the kernels, which are the 
nutmegs, extracted. These are dipped in lime and water to 
preserve them , and exported. 



50 


WOODS. 


Introduction. —On examining the stem or trunk of any 
tree, that is a native of temperate climates, we find it con¬ 
sists of three distinct substances. In the centre is situated a 
light, soft, and porous, or cellular body, called pith, which 
is so large in the elder that it may be readily examined. 
The use of the pith appears to be to convey the sap upwards 
to the leaves when the plant is very young, and before any 
other channels are formed for its ascent; as the plant in¬ 
creases in age the pith becomes dry, and is, apparently, of 
no further use, and may be removed without any injury to 
the life or health of the tree. Surrounding the pith is the 
wood, w hich consists of tough, strong fibres, so closely united 
as to form a very firm solid substance. The fibres are placed 
side by side, and run in the direction of the trunk; they cause 
what is termed the grain of the w'ood, and when w^e cut a 
piece of wood across the grain we cut these fibres across; 
when we split it with the grain we merely tear the fibres apart 
that were before lying side by side. Every summer the tree 
forms a fresh quantity of w'ood around that of a previous 
growth; therefore it of necessity makes a circle, and on at¬ 
tentive examination of the trunk when cut across, we may 
perceive that the whole mass of wood consists of a number 
of circles in succession; each of these circles has been 
the growth of one year, and by counting them we ascer¬ 
tain the age of the tree. The wood that was formed the 
first year is next the pith; that formed the second year of 
the tree’s life is outside the w'ood of the first year, and so on 
a fresh circle is deposited every year outside those pre¬ 
viously formed; hence the oldest, and usually the firmest 
wood in a tree is the centre, and this is called heart w'ood; 
whilst the youngest and softest is on the outside, and is called 



WOODS. 


51 


the sap wood, as it is through it that the sap rises to supply 
the branches and leaves. The uses of the wood to the plant 
are twofold: it gives great firmness and strength to the 
stem, enabling it to bear up the head of the tree and to with¬ 
stand the force of the wind blowing against it; it is also the 
channel through which the sap rises from the roots to be con¬ 
veyed to the leaves and flowers. The uses of wood to man 
are immense, but they will be spoken of as each particular 
wood is described. On the outside of the wood, protecting 
it, and serving also as a channel for the descent of the sap, is 
the bark, which is more particularly described under the head 
of Oak Bark. 

Cedar-w^ood. —The cedar-wood used in this countr}^ at 
the present time is not, as its name would lead us to suppose, 
the produce of the cedar tree, but of a kind of juniper, a native 
of the Island of Bermuda; the tree is too tender to grow in 
the cold climate of this country; like our common juniper, 
it has long, narrow, sharp-pointed leaves, and its seeds, in¬ 
stead of being contained in a cone, like those of the real 
ced.ar, are enclosed in a small fleshy berry. 

The tree attains a very large size, and the wood is sent to 
this and other Emopean countries in considerable quantities. 
It is of a very fine close grain, but, at the same time, exceed¬ 
ingly soft and light. Its odour is agreeable and fragrant, and 
its colour a delicate slightly reddish brown. It is occasionally 
used by cabinet makers, but it is too soft for most purposes, 
being readily scratched by the nail. Its great use is for 
making pencils and pen-holders; to these purposes it is well 
adapted, by its lightness, and by the readiness with which it 
is cut, as well as by its agreeable colour and smell. It is 
occasionally used in the form of shavings to drive away 
moths; but a stronger odour, as camphor, is much more 
efficacious. 

Mahogany. —The tree that yields this valuable wood is a 
native of the West India Islands, and the central and warmer 
parts of America. 

The tree is tall and straight, often rising to a great height 
before it branches out; it frequently measures above 100feet 
to the top of the branches. The latter spread out on every 

F 2 


52 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


side to a great extent, forming a very large head; the leaves 
are a deep shining green, and somewhat resemble those of the 
walnut; the flowers are small and whitish, their pearly ap¬ 
pearance contrasting very beautifully with the deep colour 
of the foliage. The age which the tree attains is great, as 
it grow's but very slowly—most probably it does not arrive at 
maturity under 200 years. '1 he trees, when felled, are hewn 
into a square shape before ship})ed to this and other countries. 

The wood yielded b}'’ the tree is of great value to the 
cabinet maker, partly, from its great hardness, which renders 
it not so liable as other woods to be scratched, and enables it 
to take a fine polish. It is also valuable from its remaining 
straight Avhen made into articles of furniture, it not being 
liable to warp or bend Its colour, also, is dark and rich, 
especially when it is oiled or varnished, and it also readily 
receives a polish. 

These desirable qualities have brought this w^ood into 
almost universal use as a material for furniture, and there are 
but few houses in this countrv which do not contain some 
article made of mahogany, though it is a native of so far dis¬ 
tant a climate. When first discovered the wood was used for 
building or repairing ships by the Spaniards; but its beauty 
being observed, it came rapidly into its present use. 

The bark of the tree has ’been used in medicine; but, 
though very astringent and bitter, its value is not equal to 
that of other barks more employed. 

Oak-wood. —Oak-wood is the produce of several varieties 
of oak growing in dilferent parts of the w'orld. It is also 
yielded of a most excellent quality by the two kinds of oak 
vvhich are natives of this country. 

The wood is of a coarse, open grain, but, at the same time, 
heavy, and exceedingly strong and tough. Hence it is of 
great value for all purposes w'here strength is required—as, 
for example, for spokes of wdieels, the bars of ladders, and the 
frame-work of machinery; builders requiring wDoden bars of 
great strength for roofs, &c. of large buildings, as cathedrals, 
usually employ oak, as there is not any w'ood so readily ob¬ 
tained that possesses its strength or durability ; many of the 
roofs formed of it have lasted even hundreds of years. Oak 
resists the action both of air and waiter, and it is owing to 


WOODS. 


53 


this property, as well as to its strength, that it is employed in 
building ships of war—for which ])urpose it is well suited, by 
the power it possesses of permitting a cannon ball to pass 
through it without its splintering, so as to form a large ajier- 
ture. The crooked branches of the tree also yield what arc 
termed knees, these are the bent timbers placed inside the 
vessel to support the decks, and to strengthen the hull. 

As the oak is not ailbcted by moisture, it is generally em¬ 
ployed for making tubs, casks, and pails, for which purpose 
its great strength also renders it servicable. 

Pine, or Fir-wood. —The different kinds of fir-wood, 
jiine, or deal, are all the produce of various species of fir 
trees. Thus the scotch pine, or fir, yields the red deal, used 
by carpenters, &c.; and the yellow deal, white deal, and pine 
are the produce of other fir trees. 

All the various kinds of fir-wood are valuable, but none more 
so than the Scotch fir. The value of these woods depends on 
several circumstances; the trees being tall and straight yield 
planks which are long and free from knots. The wood is also 
light and soft, so as to be readily worked by the carpenter or 
builder, and, at the same time, sufficiently strong to form 
beams and joists for houses, frame-work for machinery, &c. 

It is from its holding glue better than most other woods, 
and being so readily worked, that it is selected by the picture- 
frame carver, and by the cabinet maker ; who, after that he 
has formed articles of furniture from it, covers them with a 
thin coating of mahogany, or rosewood, called veneer, which 
is glued on. 

The various kinds of deal are valuable from their power of 
resisting decay; this is perhaps owing to the quantity of tur¬ 
pentine and resin that they contain. The wood seems saturated 
with these substances; and as they are not acted upon by 
water, they must serve to protect the wood from damp; so 
well is this known, that builders always cause the piles on 
which bridges are raised to be made of fir. The straightness, 
lightness, and strength combined in this timber, cause it to 
be used for forming masts, yards, &c. to ships. It is fortu¬ 
nate for man that a wood so valuable should be abundant; 
we find, in the mountainous districts of all countries, pines in 
immense forests, from the coldest regions of Norway and 

F 3 


54 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


Sweden, to the waira climate of the Holy Land (“ Solo¬ 
mon got cedar trees, and fir trees, according to all his de¬ 
sire ”); so that the wood most generally useful is the most 
easily obtained, and though in quality the most valuable, in 
})rice the least. 



55 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


Acorn. —An acora is the fruit, or ripe seed vessel, of the 
oak. It consists of a hard cup formed of small scales firmly 
connected together, and an oval nut, which is joined at its 
base to the cup. The nut has a thin, light brown shell, which 
encloses the kernel, or seed. Before the acorn has become ripe 
the cup entirely covers the nut, which it preserves from 
injury. As the nut grows its shell becomes hard, and it no 
longer requires the protection of the cup, from which it bursts 
forth. 

The only use to which acorns are a})plied at the present 
time in this country is for the food of pigs. When the acorns 
are ripe they fall from the oaks, and the swine are driven into 
the forest and eat them. The bacon and hams of the Hamp¬ 
shire pigs, which feed in the New Forest, are considered par¬ 
ticularly excellent. 

Before the birth of our Saviour the original inhabitants of 
this country (the Ancient Britons) made acorns a large part 
of their food; and even now the inhabitants of Spain and 
Portugal eat the acorns which grow on dilFerant kinds of 
oaks ; they are, however, much less bitter than our acorns, 
and are really good Ibod. 

The squirrel, and other small quadrupeds, and some of our 
wild birds, feed largely on acorns. 

The mode in which a plant bursts forth from its seed may 
be most beautifully and instructively showm by partially fill¬ 
ing a hyacinth glass with water, fitting a card to the top, as 
a kind of lid, and from the card suspending an acorn over the 
surface of the water. After a few weeks the acorn begins to 
sprout, or germinate, and when some time has elapsed a hole 
must be made in the card for the little tree to shoot through. 
This experiment shouhl be performed in the autumn, when the 



56 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


acorns are fresh from the trees ; and if the glass be kept in a 
warm room the jilant will live through the winter: it dies 
however in the spring, if not planted in the earth. 

Beans, dried. —Beans are the produce of a plant origi¬ 
nally a native of the East, but now cultivated, very generally, 
over the more temperate parts of the world. 

The plant is an annual, about two feet in height, bearing 
divided leaves on a short stem; its flowers are butterfly 
shaped, and when they fall off are succeeded by that kind of 
fruit called a pod, consisting of two halves readily divided, 
each having on its lower edge several seeds, or beans. 

If a dried bean be soaked in water for some days, and then 
examined, it will be found to consist of a thick skin, enclosing 
two parts, or halves, called the seed lobes, or leaves, connected 
together by a small curved body, pointed at each end. 

When a bean is sown it absorbs moisture from the ground; 
every part swelling, the skin bursts, and one point of the con¬ 
necting body between the lobes shoots up into a stem, whilst 
the opposite one grows downwards into the root; these, until 
they are able to procure food for themselves from the ground, 
are nourished from the fleshy seed lobes which, during this 
time, are forced above ground by the growth of the young 
stem, and, turning green, act as the first leaves of the yonng 
plant; afterwards, w^hen the other leaves are grown, these are 
no longer required, when they thy up and fall off. For agri¬ 
cultural piu*})Oses beans are sown by the drilling machine, or 
dibbled in with the hand, four or five being placed in each of 
the holes, which are made from six to eight inches apart. 
They are planted about the end of February, and cut down in 
autumn. 

The great use of beans is in feeding horses, for which 
})urpose they are split, or crushed, and mixed with cut hay, or 
chaff. As they contain a very large amount of nourishment 
they are employed as food to fatten hogs for bacon, some¬ 
times being used whole, at others ground. Millers also 
grind them with new wheat to make bread flower; and, in 
some parts of the country, a large quantity of bean meal is 
used ill the coarser kind of bread. 

The broad Windsor beans, used, when green, as a table 
vegetable, are merely a large kind of horse bean, improved 
by cultivation. 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


57 


Beer. —Beer is an intoxicating and spirituous liquor, 
manufactured from malted barley and hops. The malt is 
first crushed or ground, and then soaked or mashed in hot 
water: after the water has dissolved the sugar and other 
substances of the malt, it is drained off (and in this state it is 
called sweet wort, from its sweet taste). It is then boiled 
with the hops, which give to the liquor their strong bitter 
taste. After being strained the hops, the liquor is cooled 
as rapidly as possible, and is then placed in a large vessel 
or fermenting tun, along with the requisite quantity of yeast, 
wdiich has the power of causing it to ferment in a short 
time. 

During this process the sugar that existed in the malt is 
converted into spirit, whilst the bitter of the hops remains 
nearly unchanged. 

It IS a common error to suppose that beer does not con¬ 
tain spirit, this is incorrect; the spirit in beer is of the 
same nature as that of chstilled liquors, the only difference 
being that in beer it is much smaller in quantity and mixed 
with other substances, as the bitter of the hops and the 
viu'ious substances dissolved out of the mult. 

Beer, as thus made, is of variable colour, from jiale amber 
to dark brown, depending on the kind of malt used. If the 
malt be much dried in the making, it gives a very deep colour 
to the beer, which is then called jiorter; if, on the contrary, 
it has been slightly dried, the beer is pale. 

With regard to the usefulness of beer when taken as a 
drink, even in moderation, there is great difference of opinion; 
but tiiere is no doubt that when taken in large quantities 
continually, it produces a bloated irritable state of the body, 
and that it also stupifies the intellect and deadens the facul¬ 
ties of the mind. 

Bran.^ —On grinding wheat to form flour, the brown skin 
covering each grain of corn is broken up into small pieces, 
forming what is called bran. By sifting the ground corn or 
meal, this bran is separated from the flour and preserved 
for use. 

It consists of small scales, and is used for feeding animals, 
as rabbits, ])igs, and even horses occasionally. As it is very 
light, it makes a good stuffing for dolls, pincushions, and 


58 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


small objects, and is used by calico printers in the process of 
dyeing cloth. 

Chamomile Flowers. —Chamomile flowers are the pro¬ 
duce of a plant common in many parts of England. It is a 
dwarf j)lant, with very finely cut or divided leaves; each 
flower head consists of a yellow centre surrounded by white 
leaves in the form of rays. All jiarts of the plant are intensely 
bitter and nauseous to the taste, especially the flowers, which 
have a rather agreeable aromatic odour. On account of pos¬ 
sessing these bitter tonic properties, chamomiles are used as 
medicine, and are cultivated extensively; the flovvers are 
picked and di’ied in the sun. 

When growing wild, chamomile should not be confounded 
with the mayweed, a plant to which it bears a great resem¬ 
blance ; but w hich is distinguished readily by its erect branch¬ 
ing stem, and very disagreeable and powerful odour. 

Camphor. —Camphor is a vegetable substance, in appear¬ 
ance semi-transparent and colourless ; solid, and easily 
broken, and yet at the same time so very tough that it is with 
great difficulty it can be powdered, without the addition of a 
few drops of spirit or oil. 

It is exceedingly volatile, and when exposed to the air it 
flies off in vapour. 

Its smell is very strong and aromatic, and not easily mis¬ 
taken if once known. On account of this strong odour it is 
much used to preserve cabinets and clothes from insects and 
moths; it does not destroy them, but is so much disliked by 
them, that they will not frequent the situations where it is 
placed. 

From its strong smell also has arisen the idea that it will 
prevent the catching of infectious disorders, and it is fre¬ 
quently carried by persons under this supposition ; it is, how¬ 
ever, much more hurtful than beneficial, as its efiFect on the 
system, though at first stimulating, becomes depressing, lead¬ 
ing to slight headache and oppressed breathing, thereby ren¬ 
dering the disease feared much more liable to be taken. 

Camphor dissolves in w'ater only in very small quantity, 
sufficient however is taken up to give to the w ater both its 
.aromatic odour and bitter taste. Water containing a small 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


59 


quantity of camphor dissolved in it, is known by tlie name of 
camphor julep. 

A singular effect takes place if some very small shavings of 
camphor are thrown on the surface of perfectly clean water 
contained in a large basin; the pieces of camphor imme¬ 
diately begin to move rapidly, some turning round on their 
centre, and others moving from place to place: the cause of 
these motions is unknown. 

Camphor is readily dissolved by spirits of wine : the solu¬ 
tion thus made is called camphorated spirit; it is useful for 
rubbing unbroken chilblains, and for applying to burns and 
scalds when the skin is not destroyed or broken. 

As a subject of an experimental object lesson, camphor is 
well adapted to develop several ideas; for instance, a small 
portion placed in water will show its sparing solubility. An¬ 
other portion may be dissolved in spirit of any kind. If first 
coarsely pow dered, its fusibility and volatility may be strikingly 
exemplified by placing a small piece in a spoon, and holding 
it over the flame of a candle. It first melts, and then rapidly 
volatilizes; and if allow ed to come in contact with the flame, 
its inflammability is easily showm. 

Camphor exists in many plants, but it is obtained chiefly 
from two trees; one a native of China and Japan, very much 
resembling the laurel. From this tree it is procured by chop¬ 
ping up the leaves, branches, root, &c. into small pieces, and 
placing them in a still with w^ater; on the bottom of the still 
being heated, the camphor, from its volatility, rises in vapour, 
and collects again in a cold part of the apparatus. When 
brought to Europe, it is purified by a second distillation. The 
other tree from which camphor is procured is a native of 
Borneo and Sumatra; the camphor is obtained by splitting 
open the tree, w^hen it is found in large pieces in the interior. 

Cane.— Canes, or ratans, are the long slender shoots of a 
prickly plant which grow's wild, in immense numbers, in the 
forests of the Malay peninsula, and the Eastern Islands, as 
Borneo, Sumatra, &c. The stems are cut by the natives, 
stripped of the outer skin by being 'pulled through a notch 
cut in a tree, and tied up in bundles of 100, being bent in the 
middle and the ends fastened together. 

In this form they are exported in immense numbers to 



(50 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


various parts of India, China, and Europe; to England alone 
many millions of ratans being brought annually. If a cane 
be examined, it will be found to consist of tough wood fibres, 
among which are a number of open tubes, which allow the 
sap to ascend with sufficient rapidity to supply the great 
evaporation that takes })lace from the leaves in tropical cli¬ 
mates. On the outside the cane is covered with a transparent 
glazing, of extreme hardness, so that Avhen two pieces are 
rapidly and forcibly struck together fire is produced. 

For use, those canes are regarded as the best which are 
thin, very long, of a pale yellow colour, and so flexible as to 
bend without breaking or cracking the glazing. 

The chief use to which the)^ are applied in this countr)'^ is, 
in forming the open lattice, or cane-work used for the seats 
of chairs, and similar purposes. When emjiloyed for this 
purpose they are split into slender slips, the glaze being re¬ 
tained. These slips are woven, by hand, into the open work, 
which is well adapted to resist pressure, from the great 
strength of the material; whilst the extreme hardness of the 
glazing, which is placed on the side exposed renders it very 
durable. 

Chaff. —Chaff consists of hay, dried clover, straw, or a 
mixture of these, cut small by means of a machine called a 
chaff-cutter. It is used as food for horses, being generally 
mixed with the corn that is given to them. 

'i'his name is also given to the husks of com that are de¬ 
tached from the grain by threshing, and afterwards separated 
by winnowing. It is in this sense that the word is used in 
the Scriptures. The chaff of grain is used for stuffing common 
beds, and it is also thrown do\m in farm-yards for litter. 

Coffee—raw and roasted. —Coffee is the seed of a 
small evergreen tree, or shrub, which grows to a height of 
sixteen or twenty feet. It is a native of Arabia and Abyssinia, 
but is now grown in very great quantities in the East and 
West Indies. 

The evergreen leaves of the shrub are of a bright colour, 
and resemble, somewhat, in shaj)e and size, those of the bay. 
The flowers are like the jasmine, and are brilliantly white ; 
they open so rapidly, and are in such great abundance, that 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. fil 

the trees at the time of flowering appear as if covered with 
snow, and at the same time emit a most delicious fragrance. 
Each flower is succeeded by a small berry, which attains the 
size of a cherry, and becomes, when ripe, of a dark red 
colour ; it contains two seeds. 

In Arabia the berries are gathered by placing cloth under 
the trees and shaking the branches, when the ripe ones fall 
off ; they are then spread on mats and dried in the sun, 
and the husk removed by being crushed with a large stone 
roller. After this the seeds are again dried in the sun, and 
packed up in bales for exportation. 

In the West Indies, as soon as the fruit is of a deep red 
colour, it is gathered by the negroes, who pick the ripe 
berries with their hands and put them into large bags hung 
about their necks. The berries are then either placed in the 
sun, in layers, about four inches thick, when the pulp fer¬ 
ments, and dries in about three weeks; or they are at once 
crushed in a mill, which bruises the pulp; but not the seed, 
the former is then washed away, and the coffee dried. 

Coffee, of which the beverage so called is made, is the seed 
of the berries. The form of the seed is convex or curved 
on one side, and flat on the other; the latter being deeply 
grooved. In this raw state it is of a pale brownish yellow, and 
has but little taste or smell. When roasted in a close iron 
vessel, placed over a slow fire, it acquires a dark chesnut 
colour, and each seed increases very much in size; from being 
nearly tasteless and inodorous, it becomes bitter and crisp, 
and gives out a powerful aromatic smell. 

This roasted coffee is made into a beverage by infusing it 
in boiling water, or by boiling it. When the latter mode is 
employed, care should be taken to boil it a very short time, 
for if long on the fire the aromatic flavour is dissipated, and 
the bitter principle alone remains. 

Coffee is a stimulant, and a preventive of sleep; if made 
very strong, and taken at night, as it frequently is by persons 
engaged in literary pursuits, it retards the accession of sleej) 
for several hours. 

Cork.— Cork is the bark of an evergreen oak, which grows 
abnndantly in Spain, Portugal, and the south of France. 

In order to remove the cork, a long cut is made down the 

G 



62 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


tree, at the two ends of which, incisions are made round the 
tree; the bark is then removed by an instrument inserted 
under it. If the operation is carefully performed, the cork 
tree is not injimed, as the part of the bark which is taken is 
really dead; but the inner bark cannot be removed without 
killing the tree. 

The cork is first taken from the tree w^hen it is about fifteen 
years old, and the operation is repeated every eight or ten 
years, as long as the tree lives, which is usually about 150 
years. 

After the cork bark is taken from the tree it is slightly 
charred, or burnt. This improves it, by closing the pores; 
but at the same time blackens it, and gives it a burnt odour, 
w^hich it sometimes communicates to the liquors with w’hich 
it comes in contact. After being pressed flat, it is tied up in 
bundles and exported. 

Cork possesses several qualities that render it very valuable. 
It is extremely light, hence it is used to float other bodies in 
water; as when used as floats to fishing-nets; for cork jackets 
to support persons in the water; and also for life-boats. 

Cork is extremely compressible and elastic. These qualities 
fit it admirably for stopping the mouths of bottles containing 
fluids; as, when pressed firmly in, its elasticity causes it to 
press so closely on all the parts of the mouth as to prevent 
the contents of the bottle from escaping, or the air from 
entering. Cork is also used to form the inner soles of 
shoes and boots; whilst it keeps out the w^et, it adds little to 
the weight. 

Cork is brought to this country in an unmanufactirred 
state, and is cut into the shapes and sizes required, by men 
called cork-cutters; the knives they use are extremely 
sharp, and require to be frequently wdietted. 

Currants. —The foreign, or grocers’ currants are small 
raisins, or dried grapes, which are growm, principally in the 
Grecian Islands. The name of currant has probably been 
given them from the resemblance, in size, to our common 
English fruit of that name. They are destitute of stones, 
and of a dark reddish-black colour. Wlien first gathered 
their flavour is extremely delicious. 

These small grapes are gathered from the vines in August, 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


63 


and spread out on earth which has been stainj)ed hard, and 
left until the sun has dried them, when they are closely 
pressed into warehouses, where they remain until they are 
dug out and packed in casks for exportation. 

They are so much used for various purposes, that above 
6,000 tons are annually imported into this country. 

Fig. —This fruit is the produce of the fig-tree, a plant 
originally a native of the south-west of Asia, but which is now 
also cultivated abundantly in all the countries in the south 
of Europe. 

The tree is of small size, and bears a large leaf, which is 
so deeply notched as to be partially divided into several lobes, 
there are not any visible flowers, but the fruit arises from the 
stem, in the form of little buds; these are pear-shajied, and 
appear to be pierced at the large end with a small hole. They 
continue to enlarge in size till they become the ripe fruit, re¬ 
taining their original pear-like shape. 

If one of the unripe buds be cut open it will be found to 
be hollow, and the inside to be covered with numerous small 
points ; these are the real flowers, which are thus enclosed in 
the fruit. Before it is ripe the fig abounds with a bitter 
milky juice ; in the rijie fi-uit this is converted into sugar. 

Tlie tree is easily cultivated in this country, if protected 
from severe cold; but its green fruit is not much valued, as it 
does not arrive at perfection in our climate. 

In the East figs are a most important article of food, 
both in their fresh and dried state. 

One of the most valuable qualities of the plant is its bearing 
ripe fruit three times in the year. 

In the Scriptures w'e find frequent allusions to its utility. 
The Old Testament contains many passages resjjccting the 
value set on it; and the failure of the croj) was regarded by 
the Jews, as a very serious calamity. We find its treble crop 
of fruit alluded to. Hosea says, “ I found Israel like grapes 
in the wilderness; I saw your fathers as the first ripe in the 
fig tree at her first time.’’ 

In the Levant, from whence most of our figs are obtained, 
the first crop rij)ens in June. The summer crops then begin 
to form ; it is this which is dried, and packed in boxes and 
baskets, and sent to various countries : about 1000 tons are 

G 2 


64 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


yearly brought to us. After the summer crop has ripened 
there appears a third crop, which often ripens on the tree 
after the leaves are shed, thus supplying the inhabitants with 
fresh fruit during a great })art of the year. 

Fir Cones. —The fruit of the various kinds of fir, pine, 
and cedar, consists, when ripe, of a number of hard dry scales, 
which are united together, in a conical form, round a central 
stalk. Each scale protects two seeds, which are destitute of 
any other covering. When the seeds are perfectly ripe the 
scales frequently start apart, so as to allow the ready escape 
of the seeds. These scales vary very much in the cones of 
the difierent firs: in some they are thin and flexible; 
in others they are of a large size, very thick and woody, 
being at the same time exceedingly hard. The size of the 
cones varies very much : some kinds of fir, as the common 
Scotch pine, bearing small cones; whilst other trees, of a not 
larger size, will be furnished with much larger ones. 

The seeds of these cones also vary in size and hardness; 
some, as those of the stone pine, are large enough for the 
kernels to serve as food. For t!ie sake of the oily seeds, the 
cones of this plant are brought in considerable numbers to 
this country from Norway. 

The only use to which the fir cones in this country are 
a})plied is for burning as fuel. For this pur})ose they are 
collected in })laces where they abound ; and, from their oily 
and resinous nature, they are useful in making fires, as they 
ignite quickly, and yield much flame. 

Gum Arabic. —Gum Arabic is the produce of several 
kinds of acacia trees, which are natives of the sandy deserts 
of Africa, and the East Indies. 

When the bark of these trees is wounded, a liquid oozes 
out, wdiich hardens in semi-transparent lumps; and this is ‘ 
the gum generally known by the name of gum Arabic. 

Similar lumps of gum may be obtained from the plum and 
cherry tree of our gardens; when a rupture is made in the 
bark, this mucilaginous substance oozes out. 

The use of gum depends on its ready solubility in water, 
and its adhesiveness when melted. The solution of gum, or 
gum-water, as it is usually called, is much used for sticking 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


C)5 

light and thin objects together, fastening labels on glass, or 
for any delicate work; but not where great tenacity is re¬ 
quired. It is also employed extensively in the arts, in stiffen¬ 
ing crapes and other fabrics, and in the manufacture of ink. 

Hazel Nut. —The common hazel grows wild in England. 
It is also a native of all the cooler parts of Europe, Asia, and 
North America. 

It forms a small shrubby tree, very common in hedgerows 
and coppices. 

In the autumn the barren blossoms of the next season begin 
to form; these continue to grow during the winter, and in 
the spring they appear as long drooping cylindrical scaly 
bodies, which are called catkins. 

The fertile blosoms, which at first resemble small scaly 
buds, make then ap])earance in February, before the leaves 
are to be seen they are small, and of a bright red colour. 

The filbert is merely a variety of the hazel, im])roved by 
cultivation. Both these shrubs are rendered very ornamental 
by the drooping catkins which hang from their branches 
during winter. The ripe fruit of the hazel consists of a nut 
enclosed in a husk, which, when fresh, is green, jagged at the 
margin, and of an acrid and bitter taste; it surrounds the nut, 
which consists of a firm and brittle shell enclosing a kernel, 
of an agreeable flavour. When ripe, this fruit contains a 
quantity of oil, which is readily extracted by pressme; it is 
termed nut oil, and is much used by painters. 

Hazel nuts form a very large portion of the food of the 
squirrel, who lays up, in cracks of trees, a store of them 
against the winter. The dormouse, which feeds chiefly on 
them, does the same. 

The wood of the hazel is excessively tough, and on this 
account is much used for making hoops for casks, stakes, 
hurdles, &c. 

Hops. —Hops are the produce of a coarse, rough, climbing 
plant, which attains the height of several feet, twining for 
support round the hedges or poles ne.ar which it grows. It is 
furnished with o])posite heart-shaped leaves, toothed like a 
saw at the edge, and extrcmel}^ harsh to the touch, from the 
presence of minute points or hairs. 

G 3 


66 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


Tlie flowers are of two kinds, barren and fertile ; both are 
of a })ale green colour j the former being small and grouped 
together; the latter, or fertile flower, consists of thin green 
scales, each of which covers a single seed vessel containing 
one seed. These seed-bearing flowers are collected together 
in cone-shaped heads, which increase in size; and, when ripe, 
form the substance knovsm to us under the name of hops. 
The inner surface of these scales, and the surface of the seed 
vessels, ])roduce a powdery substance, in which the bitter prin¬ 
ciple of the hop chiefly resides. 

The hop grows wild in many parts of our country, and it is 
greatly cultivated in Kent, in fields called hop-grounds. Long 
poles are placed at the root of the plants in the spring, and 
as the plants grow they twine round them, hanging in beauti¬ 
ful festoons. At the hop-picking season the poles and the 
plants are taken up and laid across large baskets, into which 
the seed vessels are put. At this time most of the labouring 
peo])le of Kent are employed in hop-picking, from the small¬ 
est child to the aged men and women. 

The great use of hops, and the purpose for which they are 
so largely cultivated in this country, is as an ingredient in 
making beer. Their utility depends upon their bitterness, 
which gives to the liquor an agreeable taste, and wholesome 
properties, and upon their strong aromatic flavour; w^hilst the 
presence of a considerable amount of astringency stops the 
fermentation of the beer, and prevents it turning sour. 

The hop is valuable as a medicine, from its strengthening 
and tonic properties. 

Indian Rubber. —This substance is the produce of seve¬ 
ral trees, which are natives of the warmer parts of South 
America. 

It is obtained by making incisions in the bark during the 
rainy season, when a thick milky juice, of a yellow’ish-w'hite 
colour, flow's out. If this juice is at once corked up in bottles, 
it will remain some time without undergoing much change; 
but if it is exposed to the air, it soon dries, and becomes the 
substance we call Indian rubber. 

The natives of South America spread the juice, as it flows 
from the trees, on moulds of clay, and as soon as one coat is 
dry they apply another, and so on, until it has acquired 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. ()7 

sufficient thickness. They hasten the drviiisr by nlacino^ the 
moulds oyer a wood fire, the smoke from which blackens the 
Indian rubber, which would otherwise be w hite. The clay 
moulds on which the soft juice is spread to harden are usually 
shaped like a large pear; when the wliole is dry they are 
easily broken and the pieces removed, and the Indian rubber 
is left in the form of a hollow bottle. 

Indian rubber, as we receive it m this country, is a soft, 
pliable, and highly elastic substance; tough, and difficult to 
be cut. Its elasticity is much increased by warmth ; and, on 
the contrary, if allowed to remain long undisturbed in the 
cold. It is much diminished. 

If heatsd considerably, India rubber melts, but it does not 
become solid again on cooling. If set fire to it biuns with a 
white flame, gives out much smoke, and a peculiar odour. It 
is quite insoluble in water, and even in spirits. 

Indian rubber is a substance of great use, not only to the 
natives of the climates where it is produced, but to u;^ and 
other nations. The inhabitants of South America form 
waterproof boots, by spreading the milky juice of the tree, 
before it hardens, on cloth. They also use the bottles into 
which they first shajie the substance, and they make torches 
of it. 

In this country it was for many years only used to rub out 
the marks of black-lead pencils, and from this circumstance it 
took its name; but a late discovery, that a fluid obtained 
from coal tar dissolves it, and on drying leayes it unchanged, 
renders it an article of extreme utility. 

This dissolyed Indian rubber is now used for many pur- 
jioses. Water-proof, or “ Macintosh ” cloth, as it is called, 
from the name of the inventor, is made by spreading the dis¬ 
solved Indian rubber on a piece of cloth, j)ressing another 
})iece on it, and passing the w'hole through rollers. In a 
short time, the coal tar naj)htha flies off, and leaves the two 
pieces of cloth firmly connected together by the interposed 
Indian rubber. The fabric is quite water-proof, and even air¬ 
proof, so that bags of it may be blow n up like a bladder, and 
used as ])illows or cushions. Its great use, however, is in 
making water-proof caps, cloaks, and great coats. The dis¬ 
solved Inthan rubber is also used, instead of glue, in bind¬ 
ing books, and it holds the paper so firmly that threads are 



68 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


not required. Water-proof shoes are made of Indian ruhl 
thin sheets being formed to the shape of the foot. It 

a.so much used m sm-gicai appai'atus, for forming elastic b; 
clages;, &c. ° 


Ink.—W ilting ink is an opaque, black liquid, much u 
lor writing on paper, parchments, &c. 

The principal ingredients used in making ink are, sn 
vitriol, or sulphate of iron, nut-galls, gum, and water. 

1 he nut-galls, coarsely powdered, are usually boiled i] 
part of the water first, so that the latter may dissolve out 
tneir astringent particles. To this liquid, when strain- 
le gum and the green vitriol, previously dissolve4 in wat 
aie added; a chemical change immediately takes place in t 

^ produced, which is insolul 

m Mater, and would sink to the bottom if the gum were 


present to thicken :^he ink, and so suspend the^colour. 

it bcCOl 

mucii clarkcr on pvr»nciivo . r,.. _ <» , 


v.iicii lust maue, our 
much darker on exposure to the air for a few days. 

In the ivholesale manufacture of ink, logM^ood and I 
vitriol, a preparation of copper, are both frequently added 

tno serious inconveniences ; it causes the ink to act on si 
pens, and penknives, coatmg them with copper and rani 
.spoiling them ; and what is even still worse, it renders 
exceedingly poisonous, for these reasons, though it mi 
improves the colour of the ink, it is better to omit it. 


Moss.—Mosses are small plants, not exceeding a 
inches in height, found growing in all parts of the wo 
though much more abundant in cold or damp tempei 
climates than m the tropics, or in very dry situations 
are covered rvith small, usually brigl.t\®L taves vm . 
and membranouj and are destitute of flowers, having inste 

supported by long sta] 
Each of these cases is at first coveiVd bv a lon<. Vom 
cover, resembling an extinguisher; this falls off, and the u 
ike case IS exposed, with its opening at the toil closed b 

troth if' removed, displavs a fringe of sir 

teeth. Upon separating these teeth the case may be obseri 
to be hlled Mith an excessively fine powder, which is the s( 


MISCELLANEOL’S SUBSTANCES. 


61) 



) he moss, and when carried by the Avind sows itself, and 
t luces plants similar to the one by which it was formed, 
djise cases are usually formed in winter weather, as the 
, ts of summer dry up the plants, and they cease vegetating, 
'he use of mosses to man is but small and unimportant, 
jj! Laplanders use them for bedding; and in some parts of 
north of England they are formed into elastic mattrasses; 
i 1st the larger kinds are made into door-mats, and even 
ill small brooms. The common bog moss is much used for 
iking, especially for preserving the roots of trees during 
lisplantation. 

Although their immediate benefit to man is but small, yet 

i use of mosses in nature is very great. They grow where 
ier plants could not exist; upon barren rocks, mountains, 

ii i walls; they cover over the fallen trunks of decaying trees, 
^1 then, by their decay, form a vegetable mould, in which 
5;er plants, as grasses, &c., can grow. As an instauce of 
j^ir power of forming soil may be mentioned, that a tuft 
inoss, weighing six ounces, was found growing on the top 
i|some bare tiles, upon washing away the mould from the 
ijts it was found that the moss itself weighed only one 

ice ; and that the soil it had produced, by the decay of its 
.d leaves, weighed the remaining five. 

[*he peat soil of bogs is formed, in great part, of decayed 
sses, which are constantly growing in full luxuriance upon 
; damp surface of such ground. 

desides these uses, mosses serve as a habitation to many 
ds of insects, especially in the winter. These insects, at 
i;h times, furnish, in their turn, food for birds, who are 
p indebted to moss for a considerable portion of the ma- 
iial of their nests. 

4n exceedingly small moss is found growing, in great 
andance, ujion the walls of Jerusaleni; and it is supjiosed 
it this is the plant alluded to by Solomon, when he con- 
sts the lofty cedars of Lebanon with the hyssop growing 
; of the Avail. 

Neither of the familiar substances knoAvn under the names 
I Iceland and Irish moss is a moss; the former being a 
jid of lichen, and the latter a sea weed. (See Sea W eeds.) 

Mustard Seeds. —The mustard in common use is the 









70 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


seed produced by two annual herbaceous plants with yellow 
flowers, the four petals of which are arranged in the cross¬ 
like form, so characteristic of the wdiolesome and generally 
pungent tribe of plants to which they belong (the cruciform). 

Both the ]dants are natives of this country. The seeds of 
one plant are ])ale yellow, or nearly white; hence it is termed 
white mustard, and the ])lant producing them is chiefly cul¬ 
tivated for small salad. Those of the other are dark reddish 
brown—the plant bearing them is called black mustard. The 
latter kind is chiefly used, the seeds being much more pun¬ 
gent than those of the fonner. It is cultivated very exten¬ 
sively in the counties of Durham and Yorkshire. The seeds 
are sown either with the drill, or by the hand broadcast, in 
March or April, after the ground has been prepared by 
]floughing and harrowing. Y/hen the plants are a few inches 
high they are thinned by hoeing, and in August or September, 
when the small yellow' cross-shaped flowers have faded, leav¬ 
ing the seed vessel and seeds fit for gathering, the plants 
are cut down and tied in sheaves. 

In preparing mustard for use, the seeds are ground in a 
mill, and the dark-colom’ed husk separated by fine sifting. 
Ground mustard, or flour of mustard, as it is sometimes 
tenued, w'hen mixed into a paste with w-ater, forms the w^ell- 
know’n condiment that is used to flavour our food, and to 
quicken digestion by stimulating the stomach to more rapid 
action. 

Ground mustard also forms an extremely useful and safe 
emetic where poison has been taken; a large table-spoonful 
of the powder in a glass of water acting immediately. It is 
also used to aid the efleets of hot foot-baths, as by its stimu¬ 
lating properties it causes a great determination of blood to 
the slvin from any affected part. 

White mustard is cultivated for salad, the young plants 
being cut when about two inches high. Some years since the 
seed was much used as a cure ibr many com])laints, when 
sw’allow'ed w'hole in water; but its use was much more in- 
jiu-ious than beneficial. 

It may be mentioned that the mustard plant, though pro¬ 
duced from so small a seed, attains a large size in hot climates, 
and was hence cnosen by our Saviour as a subject for one of 
the parables—Matt. xiii. 31; Mark iv. 30; Luke xiii. 18. 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


71 


As, however, it does not become a tree, it is supposed by 
many writers that another plant was alluded to. 

Nutgalls. —These useful substances are the produce of a 
small shrubby oak that grows abundantly in all the countries 
of Asia IVIinor. Its stature is so low that it ought to be con¬ 
sidered as a shrub rather than a tree, not attaining a greater 
height than six feet. The nutgalls, although produced on 
the plant, arc not its fruit (which resembles that of our oaks, 
being acorns), but are caused by a small insect which pierces 
the bark of the young shoots, and deposits its egg in the 
hole ; the presence of the egg causes a swelling to take place, 
which is the gall. The eggs are hatched in the gallnuts, they 
become larvje or grubs, and feed on the substance of the gall 
that contains them; after a certain time they turn to the 
perfect insects, which soon gnaw their way out, leaving a small 
hole in the side of the nutgall. On looking at a number of 
galls, we find that some are pierced with this round aperture, 
whilst others are not—the latter are considered the most 
valuable in commerce, if broken, they will be found to con¬ 
tain the remains of the grub, or not unfrequently the perfect 
insect. Galls are in perfection when they have arrived at 
their full size and weight, yet before they are pierced by the 
insect. They are gathered by hand for sale. Of all vege¬ 
table substances, nutgalls are by far the most astringent. 
This w'e might be led to expect, as they are produced from 
the juice of the oak, which abounds in astringent matter. 
(See Oak Bark.) 

They are used in the manufacture of ink, as they have the 
propel^ of producing a black colour w hen mixed w ith green 
vitriol (a preparation of iron). They are also used in dyeing 
cloths black and other colours, and also occasionally in me¬ 
dicine. 

Oak B.\rk. —The stems of trees growing in temperate 
climates have a covering called bark; this not only protects 
the growing wood, but serves as a channel dowm which the 
sap that has been prepared in the leaves descends. 1 his de¬ 
scending sap, having been exposed in the leaves to the action 
of the sun and air, is charged with the peculiar products of 
the plant; and as it descends by the bark, this last is 


72 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


also highly charged with them. It is from this circiirastance 
that the bark is selected in jireference to the wood wdien we 
wish to obtain the peculiar principle of an}-^ plant. The bark 
of the oak, therefore, contains a much larger proportion of 
the astringent matter of the plant than the wood. Its great 
use is to convert hides into leather; it is carefully removed 
from the tree, and is then ground into a coarse powder be¬ 
tween iron rollers, and placed in layers between the skins in 
the tan-pit. The skins of animals consist in a great part of 
a substance similar to glue, which is soluble in water, and 
very perishable. When this is acted upon by the astringent 
part of the oak bark, the two unite and form the insoluble 
and durable substance called leather. 

After all the astringent part of the coarsely powdered oak 
bark has been absorbed, the refuse is used sometimes to keep 
up the heat in hotbeds, for as it gradually decays it gives out 
a mild warmth ; and at other times it is pressed into a solid 
mass, dried, and sold for burning as a kind of turf. 

iVIuch more oak bark is used in this country for tanning 
hides than our own oaks will supjily ; therefore large quanti¬ 
ties are imjiorted from the Netherlands, (iermany, and other 
countries. 

Olive Oil. —This liquid is the produce of the fruit of the 
olive, which is crushed when fully ripe, and the oil pressed 
out. Thus obtained, it is a pale yellow liquid, with a bland 
oilv taste, and destitute of smell. In the warm countries 
of the south of Europe and Syria, of which the olive is a 
native, the oil has been in use from the earliest periods of 
which we have any record (Exod. xxvii), both for burning in 
lamps and for food. For these purposes it is well adapted; 
it is readily inflammable, and burns with a clear flame and 
without smoke: and from its being without any unpleasant 
odour, and not being liable to turn rancid, it is much used 
for food. 

Another use to which olive oil was applied in the East was 
for the purpose of making ointments, which were used in 
anointing; these were made of sjiices of the most expensive 
kind mixed together with oil. In this country, at the jwesent 
time, oil is used for food and for the jireparation of medical 
ointments, &c. 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 73 

Oils ot a cheaper kind, obtained from animals, as the 
whale and seal, are used for burning in lamps. 

Another important use of oils is for the purpose of making 
paint: when mixed with chemical substances of a drying 
nature, and exposed to the air, they become hard and dry; 
and if in this state they are laid on wood, &c., they form a 
kind of varnish that perfectly resists the dampness of our 
climate, and much preserves the wood. When white lead is 
added so as to render the mixture perfectly opaque, it is 
called paint, and various colours are generally added to 
produce the tints required. 

Olive oil, from its great price, is not usually employed for 
making paints, but that prepared from the seeds of the flax 
"or linseed. (See Linseed.) t 

Paper. —This valuable material is manufactured almost 
entirely from various kinds of rags.) In this country so great 
is the demand for rags for this purpose, that they are im¬ 
ported in immense quantities from Germany and other parts 
of Europe, /^he first operation in making paper is the sort- S 
ing of the rags according to their various degrees of fineness, 
and at the same time they are cut into small shreds; these 
shreds are then beaten and shaken in a machine, so as to free 
them as much as possible from dust and dirt. The rags are 
then washed, and afterwards ground to a pulp in water by 
means of a machine of rather a complicated construction ; it 
consists of a large cistern to contain the water and the rags 
to be converted into pulp. In this cistern turns round with 
immense rapidity a cylinder like a drum, from the sides of 
w'hich project a number of blades or cutters; these, as the 
cylinder turns round in the water, have their cutting edges 
brought close to those of another set of cutters fixed to the 
cistern, and as the rags are caugiit between the knives they 
are rapidly cut or torn up, and reduced to a pulp, which is 
blackened by the addition of chloride of lime. ^ (See Chlo¬ 
ride of Lime.) 

This pulp being again well beaten, so as to render it ex¬ 
ceedingly smooth, is mixed with some size or thin glue ; and ^ 
for the manufacture of some papers a small quantity of blue, 
as indigo, is added. 

Formerly, from the pulp thus prepared, the paper was 

H 


74 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


made by hand; but latterly by far the greatest quantity is 
made by a machine. 

In the former case the paper was made in sheets the size 
required for use, but by the machine in pieces of immense 
length—viz., from twenty to thirty feet, and five feet in 
breadth. It is stated that the machines now at work in Great 
Britain make nearly 2000 miles of paper four or five feet 
broad every day. The formation of the machine is very com¬ 
plicated, and could not be understood without the aid of 
engravings; therefore the mode of making paper by hand 
will be described, the principle being the same in both 
cases; for whatever plan is adopted, the object is to separate 
from the pulp the water it contains, and to cause the former 
to assume the shape of a sheet of paper. The worker stands 
by the side of a vat containing the pulp well mixed; into this 
he dips a kind of sieve called a mould, on which he takes iqi 
a small quantity of pulp; this sieve is formed of wires, the 
arrangement of which varies with the kind of paper required : 
for foolscap the uires are separate and run parallel, giving 
that paper its peculiar ribbed appearance. Wove paper is so 
called from the sieve or mould being formed of wires woven 
into a fine cloth, uith about fifty or sixty meshes to the inch. 

Usually the maker’s name and the date are marked on 
the mould by sewing in a piece of wire in the form of the 
letters required ; this being raised above the surface of the 
mould, makes the paper thinner at these parts. The pulp 
taken into the mould is, by shaking, spread very evenly over 
the whole surface, and the water drains away through the 
wires; when so much of the w^ater has drained off as to leave 
the pulp tolerably firm, it is turned out on a piece of felted 
cloth, and upon it another piece of felt is laid to receive a 
second layer of half solid pulp; and so on alternately pulp 
and felt until six or eight quires are piled up. The whole is 
then pressed by machinery with a pressure equal to or ex¬ 
ceeding 100 tons ; by this immense force much of the water 
is driven out, and the paper becomes much more solid. 
Removed from the press, the felts and paper are separated 
by a boy, the former being again ready for immediate use. 
Two men working at the vat, and a boy to separate the felts 
and pressed papers, can make six or eight reams a day. 

In the evening the whole of the paper made during the day 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 75 

is placed in a j>ress, where it remains all night; this some¬ 
what smooths the surface, and gets rid of more of the mois¬ 
ture. It is then separated and hung on ropes to dry. 

From the drying room it is removed to be sized; this is 
accomplished by dippiug about four quires at once into a kind 
of size or thin glue (see Glue), each sheet being moistened 
equally. The whole is onee more pressed, and again dried 
slowly for some days. The paper is now finished, vrith the ex¬ 
ception of pressing onee or twice, so as to give it a smooth 
and even surface. It is then sent to the finisher, who counts 
the sheets into reams and does them up ; so great is the 
ra])idity acquired by practice, that a good finisher will count 
200 reams, or 96,000 sheets, a day. 

Several kinds of paper are made from various materials, as 
they are required to answer different purposes. 

Brown paper, in use for packing up heavy articles, is made 
from canvas, sackcloth, and other strong hempen materials. 
Whity brown paper is a cheap paper used for w'ra})ping up 
small articles; is made thin, and of rather finer materials. 

Blotting paper is made without being much pressed, and 
is not sized ; so that it is porous and very absorbent, readily 
sucking up, like a sponge, the superfluous ink from writing— 
the pulp for this paper is usually coloured in making. 

Foolscap is a paper of large size, made on a mould whose \ 
wires are parallel. Letter, or wove paper, is formed on a ) 
mould of closely woven wire gauze. It is sometimes left 
white; at others dyed, when in a state of nulp, with indigo, j 
or a dye called smalt; this is called blue, the other yellow, ^ 
wove. 

Hot pressed or satin paper is merely the best Bath or letter 
paper, sheets of which are placed alternately betw een verv 
smooth pasteboards, and between every fifty pasteboards a 
hot sheet of iron is put; the wdiole is then pressed with im¬ 
mense force, when the warmth from the iron penetrates the 
jhle, and with the pressure gives an exceedingly smooth sur¬ 
face to the paper. Silver paper is a very thin paper used for 
ornaments, and usually made without much size. 

Pasteboard and card consist merely of several thicknesses 
of paper pasted together, and made to adhere by being firmly 
pressed together. 


H 


o 


76 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


Pearlash.— Pearlash is an alkaline substance obtained 
from wood ashes. Our great sujiply of pearlash is from 
America, where the trees are often cut dowm and burnt, 
solely for the purpose of manufacturing this article. The 
ashes of the burnt timber are collected and put into cisterns; 
water is poured upon them, which dissolves all the soluble 
parts of the ash, and, after standing some hours to become 
clear, is drama off and evaporated to chyness in iron pots, 
when the half-melted pearlash remains. 

It is brought to this countr}’^ in casks, containing about five 
hundredweight. 

Pearlash obtained by this process is usually of a greyish 
colour, from the presence of impurities; but it is readily 
freed from these by dissolving it carefully in water, and eva¬ 
porating the clear liquor. 

Pearlash when pm’e is a white substance of an acrid caustic 
taste, easily soluble in water; with which it has so great a 
disposition to unite, as to attract it from the air, unless it is 
kept in closely corked vessels or casks. It is an article of 
great importance in many of our manufactures. Soft soap is 
in part composed of it; many kinds of glass are made by its 
aid (see Glass). It is also used by scourers in cleaning 
wool, &c.; and its use in removing grease and scorning 
wood-work, paint, &c. is very great: although it is now not 
so much employed for these latter purposes as soda, a sub¬ 
stance somewhat similar in properties, but much cheaper in 
price. 

Soda (which does not attract moisture from the air) is pre¬ 
pared by a complicated chemical process from common salt. 

Peas. —The common pea was originally a native of the 
south of Europe, but is now extensively cidtivated in all tem¬ 
perate climates. 

It is a climbing plant, with leaves divided into six leaflets; 
the main stalk of the leaf proceeds beyond the last pair of 
leaflets, and forms the tendril by which the plant clings 
for support, the stem being too weak to rear it in the air 
without assistance. This tendril has the singular power of 
twisting itself around the smaller twigs of those plants to 
which the pea natm-ally clings for support. Few circum¬ 
stances more clearly prove the design and wisdom of the 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


77 


Creator, as shown in his works, than the numberless instances 
of compensation that we so constantly meet with. Animals, 
for instance, denied the ])OSsession of some one sense, are 
comjiensated for its absence by the great perfection of another 
which answers their wants more perfectly ; or, as in the pre¬ 
sent case, a plant destitute of the power to raise its leaves 
and dowers, and expose them to the genial induences of the 
sun and air, is more than compensated for its weakness by 
the contrivance which enables it to borrow that support which 
it needs from other plants. 

The dowers of the pea are of that kind termed butterdy- 
shaped. They are sometimes white, and at others coloured; 
each dower is succeeded by a pod dividing, when ripe, into two 
parts, both of which have a row of seeds or peas; each pea 
consists of an outer skin inclosing two half round portions, 
connected together as in the bean. The description of which 
may be referred to as applicable also to the various parts of 
the pea. 

The art of man in cultivation has produced several varieties 
of the pea, the seeds of which ripen some earlier, others later. 
They all require a rich sandy soil, and should be furnished 
udth sticks so that they may climb. Some kinds are used 
fresh and young, and are termed green peas. 

The ripe dried peas, when split and separated from the 
skin, are used for making soup, and for pudding; they are 
very nutritious, and form an exceedingly cheap and whole¬ 
some article of food, but they do not agree with all constitu¬ 
tions. 

Raisins. —Raisins, or dried grapes, are the produce of the 
vine. This plant, although now cultivated in all the warmer 
regions of the globe, was originally a native of Asia, from 
whence it spread into Europe, Africa, and even the New 
World. 

The grapes of Palestine are now, as well as in the time of 
Moses, of a larger size than those of other countries. 

Although the vine is grown in this country, and the grapes 
are eatable, yet they do not arrive at perfection. Wine, for 
instance, cannot be made from them without the addition of 
sugar. Neither is the sun powerful enough to dry them so 


78 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


as to form raisins. We are dependent, therefore, on other 
countries for this dried fruit. 

In Valencia, from whence our great supply is obtained, 
raisins are formed by cutting the bunches of grapes, dipping 
them in a kind of lye made of wood ashes and lime; the lye 
is heated, the grapes are placed in a vessel full of holes, and 
the whole put into the hot lye ; the grapes are then taken out 
of the vessel, and spread out on leaves j)laeed on the ground, 
when they are rapidly dried by the heat of the sun. 

The raisins called Malaga raisins are diied without being 
dipped in lye ; hence their different appearance and flavour. 
The effect of the lye is to soften the skin of the fruit, and to 
reader it less tough; whereas those dried without being 
dipped have tough skins, but the flavour is much superior. 
Hence Valencia raisins are used for pastry, the others for eat¬ 
ing raw. 

Saffron. —Saffron is the produce of the purple crocus, a 
plant much cultivated in our gardens for its beauty, and 
growing wild in many parts of England, but originally 
brought from the East. 

The leaves appear in the spring, whilst the plant does not 
flower until the following Se])tember. Each flower consists 
of a long tube, expanding at the top into six purple petals. 
In the centre of the tube grows the style, which is a slender, 
bright orange-coloured stalk, divided at the top into three 
stigmas, which are the thread-like bodies that form, when 
dried, the substance called saffron. 

To obtain this substance the flowers are gathered early in 
the morning, before they open; the stigmas are picked out of 
them and carefully dried, by being spread out on horse-hair 
cloths over a stove. The saffron obtained in this country is 
superior to the foreign. The best is dried in loose fibres, 
when it is called hay saffron. The inferior kinds are pressed 
into flat cakes. 

Saffron is distinguished by a peculiar aromatic odour, and 
a slight bitter taste. It is used to colour and flavour pastry, 
and as a dye. When thus employed it is soaked, or boiled in 
water, which extracts both its fine yellow colour and its 
flavour, and may then be used for the purposes required. 

It was once much used in medicine, but is not now hio'hiv 

s’ 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


79 


esteemed. A plant bearing the somewhat similar name of 
“ Meadow saffron, or Colchicnm,” is much used in medicine; 
care should be taken that it is not confounded with saffron, 
as its roots and seeds, the part employed, are exceedingly 
poisonous, and have frequently proved fatal. 

Sago. —The nutritious food, known to us under this name, 
is the produce of a palm-tree growing in low marshy situa¬ 
tions, in the peninsula of Molucca, and the adjacent islands. 

The sago palm grows to about 25 or 30 feet in height; the 
trunk is thick and cylindrical (not tapering), destitute of 
branches, and bearing on its top a tuft of numerous leaves 
before the tree forms its fruit. The stem consists of a thin 
hard wall or shell outside, about two inches in thickness, 
the whole of the inner part of the trunk is filled with an 
immense quantity of a pithy substance, from which the 
sago is obtained. This pith disajipears as the fruit ripens, 
the latter deriving its nourishment from the pith, and when 
the fruit is quite ripe the stem is merely a hollow shell, or 
cylinder. 

The inhabitants of the Moluccas, to whom sago is the 
staff of life, obtain it by cutting doivn the tree close to the 
ground, splitting up the trunk, and taking out the pith, 
which they rub to powder and mix with water; after strain¬ 
ing off, the water is left standing; the sago settles at the 
bottom, and after a few more washings it is fit for use; but 
before it is sent to this country it is again wetted with water, 
so as to make a jiaste, which is rubbed or rolled into the 
small grains we are acquainted with. 

The quantity of sago yielded by each tree is immense; 
500 or 600 pounds is a common produce for one palm. 

Sago is a nutritious, wholesome food, of a starchy nature, 
light, and very easy of digestion, so that it is frequently used 
by invalids. It is now much employed as an article of food 
in this country, being valuable from its cheapness, and its 
wholesome properties. Many hundred tons are annually im¬ 
ported into this country. 

Sawdust. —Sawdust is a coarsely jiowdered substance, 
consisting of the small pieces torn out of wood by the teeth 
of the saw, as they are forced through it in the act of sawing. 


I 


80 VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 

In colour it of course varies, with the wood from which it 
is obtained. It is commonly produced from deal, or fir 
woods, as they are in the most frequent use. 

Sawdust is chiefly used for covering over floors on which 
any wet duty substance is apt to fall, as it prevents the feet 
from slipping, and the floor from becoming soiled to so great 
an extent as it would otherwise be. For this purpose it is 
much used in many shops, as in those of butchers, &c. 

It is also employed in stuffing dolls, pincushions, and simi¬ 
lar articles; and in cellars, being jilaced between rows of 
bottles, so as to prevent their pressing irregularly upon, and 
thus breaking one another by then* own weight. 

Sealing-wax. —This is a substance employed for fasten¬ 
ing letters and papers. Its use depends on the readiness 
with which it melts; on its adhesiveness when melted, which 
is sufficient to enable it to stick very firmly to paper, but 
not so great as to fix it to a polished seal; on its plastic nature, 
when fused, which allows it to receive any impression stamped 
upon it; and as it hardens when cold, it retains the image 
impressed upon it. 

Sealing-wax, possessing these properties, is prepared from 
a resinous substance termed shell-lac (which is the produce of 
an insect, a native of the Fiast Indies), melted with about 
one quarter of its weight of Venice turpentine, and coloured 
red by vermillion, or sometimes black, by lamp-black. These 
ingredients are all melted together, and well mixed by stir- 
iug; and, while still soft, either cast into moulds of the shape 
desired, or rolled into round sticks, on a smooth marble slab. 

A cheaper kind of sealing-wax is made with resin and red 
lead, for sealing over the corks of wine-bottles, &c. &c. 

Sea Weeds. —The name of sea weeds is given to those 
plants found growing in the waters of the ocean. Although 
very different in appearance from one another, they all agree 
in being quite destitute of flowers, and living in the water. 

The largest kinds, and those which are most useful to man, 
consist, generally, of olive brown, or green, leathery, flat 
bodies ; some being long, and strap-shaped; others are spread 
out into a more leaf-like form. They are at first attached to, 
and grow from the rocks, under the surface of the sea. Many 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


81 


of them, as, for instance, the very common bladder wrack of 
our coast, require to be near the surface of the ocean, and for 
this purpose they are provided with small bladders, or air, to 
float them. 

INIany sea weeds are of great use to man. A few years ago 
the common kind VA ere burnt on the coast of Scotland, to form 
kelp, from which soda was obtained; but now that substance 
is procured in a cheaper manner, by a chemical process, from 
sea salt. 

Many kinds of sea weed are eaten by various nations, and 
they form, in general, a SAveet and nutritious food. The sub¬ 
stance called tangle, eaten in some parts of Scotland, is a sea 
Aveed; as is another, termed dulse. This latter is eaten by 
the fishermen both raAV and roasted; and it also forms a 
great part of the food of various shell-fish. 

A kind of dulse is barrelled for food bv the Icelanders; and 
a species in Kamschatka contains so much sugar that it is fer¬ 
mented into intoxicating drink. 

The Irish moss, or carrageen, is a sea weed; it is used in 
Ireland very largely as an article of food; it may be usefully 
employed instead of isinglass, in making jellies for invalids, for 
which purpose it is sold by druggists in England. In Ireland 
it is used also, instead of size or glue, by painters. 

Laver, which is eaten as a delicacy by some persons, is 
also a kind of sea weed. 

As food for animals these plants are of great importance. 
The bladder Avrack of our shores is eaten by pigs in Gothland, 
where it is called swine tang; and by cattle in many of the 
Scottish Islands. A kind of dulse often tempts sheep, &c. in 
Iceland so far beyond high-Avater mark that they are droAvned 
by the rapidly returning tide. 

Some kinds of sea Aveed are useful as fuel. In Jersey the 
bladder Avrack is dried for burning. And the Chinese make 
a most valuable glue from a kind that is common in their 
seas. 

Soda.—S oda is an alkaline substance, Avell knoAvn to all 
from its great use in Avashing. Until a few' years since soda 
Avas obtained from the ashes of burnt sea weed, in the same 
manner as pearlash is noAV procured from the ashes of land 
plants (see Pearlash) ; and not many yeai-s ago 20,000 


82 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


persons were employed in the Orkney Islands alone, in collect¬ 
ing and burning sea weed for this purpose. 

At the present time soda is obtained from sea salt by a 
very complicated chemical process, conducted on a most ex¬ 
tensive scale, in manufactories in the northern parts of the 
kingdom, and in such abundance is it produced that it is sold 
retail at l^d. per pound. As thus obtained, soda is usually in 
large crystals, which are transparent, readily soluble in water, 
and have a cooling, alkaline taste. They contain nearly two- 
thirds their weight of water, and if gently heated they melt. 

If the crystals of soda are kept in a warm, diy place, the 
water they contain flies off", and a dry white powder is left, 
less than half the weight of the crystals. 

Soda is an article of very great value in various arts; all 
the different kinds of soap (with the exception of soft soap) 
are made with fats, or oils, and soda (see Soap). Its use in 
cleansing from dirt and grease, both clothes and wood-work, 
or paint, is well kno\^’n. A small quantity placed in what is 
termed hard spring water will render it fit for washing, or 
boiling vegetables. 

It is also a sulbstance of considerable value in medicine. 

Sugar. —The sugar used in this country, both that called 
moist and the refined, is the produce of the sugar-cane, a 
native, originally, of the East Indies, but which is now ex¬ 
tensively cultivated in the West Indies, the Brazils, &c. &c. 

The stem of the sugar-cane is jointed, and without 
branches. It rises erect to the height of ten or twelve feet. 
The leaves, which are very long and narrow, rise singly from 
the joints, and they sheath or embrace the stem to the next 
joint above, like the leaves of our grasses. The top of the 
stem ends in a loose bundle of small downy flowers, of a very 
pale hlac colour, and about two feet long, giving to the plant 
a most elegant appearance. In the West Indies these blossoms 
are not seen, as the plant is cut down before they make their 
appearance. 

The sugar-cane is always cultivated by sowing cuttings, the 
top joints being selected for planting, wdien the cane is cut 
down. The planting of the cane does not require to be re¬ 
newed yearly; as, if the roots are left in the ground, fresh 
canes spring up for several years. 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


83 


The sugar-cane, whilst growing, is subject to several 
injuries. They are sometimes destroyed by millions of small 
insects, that live on the juice; and, at other times, they are 
subject to the depredations of monkeys and rats. 

hen the canes are fully ripe, wdiich usually is the case in 
March, the)^ are cut down near the ground; and then, being 
divided into convenient lengths, are tied up in bundles, and 
conveyed to the mill, where they are erushed, and the juiee 
squeezed out, by passing them between large iron rollers. 
The juice is immediately collected in a eistern, and boiled, 
with the addition of some lime, or lime-water, the use of 
which is to promote the separation of the impiu’ities, in the 
form of scum, which rises to the surfaee, and is skimmed 
off. The clear liquor is then rapidly boiled, in order to 
thicken it, and to enable it to form into grains on cooling; 
when it is placed in hogsheads, in which it is sent to Europe. 
These casks have their bottoms piereed with holes, in order 
that the molasses, or that portion of the sugar that will not 
cry stallize, may drain away, whilst the raw or moist sugar re¬ 
mains in the cask. The fuel used in boiling donm the juiee 
is the crushed cane, dried by exposure to the air. It is calcu¬ 
lated that 110 canes will yield about five gallons of cane 
juice; and this quantity, boiled down, produces about six 
pounds of ciystallized sugar. The molasses w'hich drain from 
the casks and the scummings of the boilers are collected, and, 
being fermented and distilled, yield the ardent spirit known 
as rum. 

Raw’^ or moist sugar is converted into lump, loaf, or re¬ 
fined sugar, by a process termed refining. This was, until 
lately, performed by boiling it with white of eggs, blood, &c.; 
but now the art of refining sugar has wholly changed, and 
much more cleanly and improved means are employed. 

The raw or moist sugar is first dissolved in water heated 
by steam, lime-water being added at the same time; the 
liquor is then filtered through thick folds of cloth. By this 
process it is freed from many impurities, and becomes trans¬ 
parent, although it is still coloured. The next stage of the 
process is the discolouration of the s\Tup; this is efiected by 
allowing it to filter through beds or layers of animal char¬ 
coal, or bone-black, formed by heating bones in close iron 
vessels. This substance has the property of separating and 


84 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


retaining the colouring matter of the syrup, which passes 
through the filter perfectly colourless. It is then pumped 
into covered boilers, and, by the aid of steam, is boiled down, 
or concentrated at a low temperature. This boiling down is 
continued until part of the sugar becomes solid ; it is then 
poured into iron moulds of the well-know'n sugar-loaf shape. 
On cooling it becomes a solid mass of sugar; a small hole is 
then opened at the bottom of the mould, and a small quantity 
of impure syrup drains out; this is the substance sold as 
treacle. 

Loaf sugar, as thus obtained, is a granular substance, 
formed of a number of small white and hard crystals adher¬ 
ing together. If pure, it has no smell, and its taste is simply 
sweet, without any other flavour. It is readily melted by 
heat. 

As an article of food, sugar is exceedingly wholesome and 
nutritious. It is noticed, that during the making of sugar 
the negroes in the plantations, and even the horses and cattle 
which are fed on the green tops and refuse, grow fat and 
strong, though their labour is at that time much increased. 

The general uses of sugar are w^ell known. Sugar candy 
is formed by allowing a hot concentrated syrup to cool slowly, 
when it forms large crystals on threads placed in the liquor. 
Barley sugar is merely sugar melted by heat and cast in 
moulds. 

Tea. —Tea is the produce of an evergreen shrub, a native 
of China, Japan, and some parts of India. The leaves, which 
are lance-shaped, somewLat like those of the myrtle, are 
serrated, or toothed like a saw' at the edges, and, w'hen fresh, 
are of a bright deep green. When full grown their length is 
about two inches. The flowers are small and white, and are 
succeeded by a seed vessel, or dry fruit, divided into three 
cells, each of which contains a single seed. The plants are 
raised from the seeds, tw'o or three being dropped into the 
place where the shrubs are desired. The leaves are gathered 
several times during the year, the young leaves alone being 
plucked. The drying begins directly the leaves are gathered, 
and it is effected partly by the sun, and partly by charcoal 
fires. During the drying the leaves are mbbed between the 
hands, so as to roll them up; and, when over the fire, are 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


85 


constantly stiiTcd to prevent their scorching. When quite 
dry, they are either retained for use or sent to one of the sea¬ 
port towns, where they are again dried, packed in chests lined 
w ith thin sheet-lead, and shipped for this and other countries. 

There are two kinds of tea brought to this country, black 
and green: it is not ascertained whether these are produced by 
the same or different plants. The green tea appears to differ 
from the black chiefly in the leaves being gathered without 
the stalks, which are always present in the latter, and in 
being less heated in the drying. It is an error to suppose 
that its green colour is owing to its being dried on copper 
pans. 

The mode in which tea is used as an almost universal 
article of diet in this country, is w'ell known; and when taken 
in moderate quantities it is not injurious, as it cheers the 
spirits and refreshes the body; but, in large quantities, tea, 
or any other hquid is unw'holesome, by weakening the tone of 
the stomach, and preventing the due digestion of food. 

Vinegar. —Vinegar is an acid liquor much used in flavour¬ 
ing food, and for pickling. It is readily obtained by allow ing 
any liquid containing a small quantity of spirit to be exposed 
to the air, when a kind of fermentation goes on, by which the 
spirit is changed into the som or acid principle of the vine¬ 
gar. Formerly, vinegar was made by exposing weak wine, or 
a kind of malt liquor brew'ed without hops, for a long period 
to the air in open vats ; but now'^ the process is much more 
rapidly conducted, by allowing the liquor to flow through 
loose shavings, by which it is so much more exposed to the air, 
that it is changed into vinegar in less than two days. As 
thus obtained, vinegar is a reddish-brown coloured liquid, of 
an agreeable aromatic, but rather pungent odour, and a sour 
taste. It has been used as a condiment from the earliest 
times; and, in the sultry eastern countries, its cooling and 
acid properties cause it to be much valued. From its being so 
readily procured by allowing any weak spirituous liquor to 
become sour, it was generally employed, being used by the 
labourers in harvest time. (Ruth, ii. 14.) Its well-known 
effect on the teeth, when undiluted with w^ater, supplies Solo¬ 
mon with an apt comparison. (Frov. x. 26.) 

Vinegar, or sour wine', was the usual drink of the Roman 

I 


86 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


soldiers; and, mingled with myrrh, or some such bitter sub¬ 
stance, it was offered to the Messiah when on the cross. By 
St. Matthew (xx^di. 34 and 48) the offered beverage is termed 
vinegar; by St. Mark, wine. 

At the present time, in this country, vinegar is used for 
seasoning food, for preserving vegetable substances from 
decay, and for forming pickles. In large quantities, however, 
it has a very injurious effect, weakening so much the structure 
of the stomach as to prevent the food being digested. 

Vinegar of a much stronger kind is now obtained, in large 
quantity, by heating w^ood to redness in iron vessels, when a 
sour liquor passes off in vapour, which, when purified, is 
found to contain the same acid as vinegar; this is much used 
in making pickles. 

Wafers. —The w^afers in common use for fastening letters 
are made with wheat flour. This is first stirred up wdth water 
so as to make a thin fluid, quite free from any lumps or un¬ 
mixed portions of flour. Then, according to the colour re¬ 
quired, various substances are mixed w ith it; such as Vermil¬ 
lion, indigo, gamboge, lamp-black, &c. &c. The worker 
then takes a tool formed of two thin iron plates, which he 
can bring together like a pair of tongs or pincers, but w'hich 
do not quite touch, leaving a small space between them as 
thick as the w'afers are to be; he first slightly warms the 
plates, then gives them a thin coat of grease, when they are 
filled with the flour paste, closed together, and held over a 
charcoal fire. On being opened when cold, a thin cake of 
wafer is found nearly dry, brittle, and about as thick as an 
address card; this is by means of ring-shaped punches cut 
into small round pieces of the size required. The use of 
wafers depends upon their becoming when moistened both 
soft and adhesive; if in this state they are placed between 
two pieces of jiaper, and the latter pressed together, the wafer 
adheres to both, and when dry firmly unites them. 

The substances used for colouring wafers are frequently 
poisonous. This is especially the case with the red ones, 
wdiich are tinted with either red lead or vermillion, both un¬ 
wholesome substances, and very injurious effects have re¬ 
sulted from their being moistened in the mouth when used in 
large numbers, in which case they should be dipped in a cup 
of water. 


MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 87 

Coarse wafers, made with red lead and flour, are used for 
poisoning black beetles or cockroaches. 

Walnuts. —These nuts are the fruit of the walnut tree, 
which is not a native of this country, but of the warmer parts 
of Europe and Asia; and in the colder parts of our island it 
will not ripen its fruit. 

The tree, which produces timber of a very valuable kind for 
use, as gun-stocks, &c., is of a beautiful appearance, bearing 
leaves which are divided into seven or nine divisions or leaf¬ 
lets, and two kinds of flowers, the barren blossoms being in 
long heads or catkins, which soon fall from the tree, whilst 
the fertile ones grow only two or three together, and are each 
succeeded by a large oval fleshy fruit, which consists of an 
outside green coating having a very bitter taste, and which 
possesses the property of dying the skin a dingy greenish 
yellow colour, which cannot be removed without much 
trouble; this green rind covers a hard oval shell, which con¬ 
sists of two pieces, each of which is deeply and irregularly 
grooved; this shell contains the seed or kernel, which is a 
very irregularly shaped body, covered by a brown skin. 

The fruit of the walnut tree is useful for a variety of pur¬ 
poses ; before the inner shell has become hard the whole 
fruit is pickled, and the juice obtained by crushing them in 
this state forms walnut ketchup. When ripe, the outer rind 
has been used as a dye for staining wool, hair. &c., of a 
greenish yellow colour. 

The kernel forms a delicious and nutritious article of food; 
it contains a very large quantity of oil, even as much as half 
its weight. This oil is extracted by pressure, and is of con¬ 
siderable value to painters and varnishers from the property 
it posseses of drying very quickly; and in some countries it 
is used for food in the same manner as salad or olive oil. 

AVillow or Osier. —In this and other temperate coun¬ 
tries grow a large number of trees known by the names of 
w'illows, osiers, or sallows. They are found in damp and 
watery situations, some attaining the size of large trees, whilst 
others are small plants; both kinds bearing long straight 
twigs. 

The great value of the willow and osier depends on the 

I 2 


88 


VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


long straight shoots they put forth, which are very flexible, 
exceedingly tough, and of very rapid growth. These cir¬ 
cumstances have caused them to be selected for the purpose 
of making baskets, hampers, crates, &c. When employed 
for large baskets, the largest shoots are taken, and the bark 
is not removed; for smaller baskets the bark is strip])ed off; 
and for still finer work the shoots are split into small strips, 
which are worked up into hats, and even bonnets, fine bas¬ 
kets, &c. &c .; they are previously bleached by being held 
over burning sulphur. Besides its use for basket-work, the 
toughness of the willow leads the cooper to use it for the 
hoops of casks; for which purpose the larger shoots are split 
down the centre, and the ends being fastened together form 
hoops, the flat split side fitting closely to the cask. 




OBJECTS 


DERIVED FROM 


THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 

\ 


SHELLS. 


Introduction. —Shells are the hai’cl substances that cover, 
and at the same time protect, the bodies of the animals that 
inhabit them. These animals are soft, fleshy, and cold to the 
touch ; they differ from the higher animals in not possessing 
an internal framework, or skeleton, and in having cold and 
white blood, also in the absence of a brain, and in their senses 
being usually less developed. 

The shells themselves consist of chalk, or carbonate of lime, 
mixed with animal matter; they are formed from the skin of 
the animal they enclose; when the latter is small, the shell is 
small also; and as the animal grow s, it enlarges the shell, by 
adding to it at the edge of the opening. 

As the shell is thus formed upon the animal, its shape, of 
course, depends entirely on that of its inmate. 

The various colours that adorn shells are deposited from 
glands in the skin of the animal, when the substance of the 
shell is still soft. 

Besides this powder of constructing their habitations, they 
have the power also of repairing them wdien any breach has 
been made in them. 

Shells are interesting to us, not only on account of the use 
of the animals as food, but from their beauty, and the wisdom 
displayed in their structure; for we find each shell suited to 
the position in which it is placed : some, by their impenetra¬ 
ble hardness, are wtII adapted to the rapid rivers in w hich they 
arc found; others, which are fragile, are, by their very light- 

I 3 






90 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


ness, preserved from being thrown with force against any 
substance, and they float on the surface of the sea uninjured. 

To the natives of savage countries, shells are especially 
valuable; of broken pieces they make substitutes for knives; 
they also use them to form their arrow and spear-heads, and 
even their fish-hooks; they are also used as vessels for hold¬ 
ing liquids. 

In many parts of America, lime is obtained in large quan¬ 
tity from shells, the animal part of which has been destroyed 
by burning. 

Shells have been aiTanged in three great divisions or 
classes; those which are formed of one piece, or valve, are 
called univalve, as the snail, whelk, &c.; those formed of tw^o 
pieces, joined together by a hinge, are called bivalves, as the 
oyster, mussel, &c.; and those formed of several pieces, are 
called multivalves, the most familiar instance is the barnacle. 

Shells of One Piece, or Univalve Shells. —The 
principal parts of a univalve shell are the whorls j they are 
the parts that roll round and form the spire, the largest one 
being called the body whorl; the wdiich is the entrance 

into the shell; the lips, which form the edge of the mouth; 
the base, which is the largest part of the shell; and the point 
or top. Some shells have a projection at the bottom of the 
mouth : this is called a beak ; the inside of the beak is a canal, 
in which the trunk of the animal fits. The animals inhabit¬ 
ing such shells have a head distinct from the body, and gene¬ 
rally furnished with long organs, termed feelers; they have 
also eyes, and a fleshy foot, on wdiich they crawl. 

Snail Shell. —This shell is an univalve of a conical 
form, wath a large sw'elling body whorl, a smooth smtace, and 
round mouth. Its inhabitant is one of the pulpy animals dis¬ 
tinguished by crawling on a broad fleshy foot, which is placed 
on the under part of the body; it has a distinct head, with 
mouth, &c., and four feelers, the two upper and longer of 
w'hich, carry at their ends the eyes, wdiich appear like black 
spots. The food of the snail is entirely vegetable; during 
winter they become torpid, and close the mouth or opening 
of the shell wdth a thin lid, which they have the power of 
forming. In dry weather, even in the greatest warmth of 


SHELLS. 


.91 


summer, they will close up the shell as described. Also, if 
they are put into a box without food, they will attach them¬ 
selves to the side, and become torpid, in w hich state they w ill 
remain for years, and will immediately revive if moistened 
with water. The writer cannot call to mind a more beautiful 
instance than this of the infinite wisdom and goodness of the 
great Creator: not only are these animals enabled to abstain 
from food during winter, but when occasional dry w^eather 
has parched up the vegetables on which they subsist, they 
have the power of becoming dormant; whilst the same refresh¬ 
ing showier that restores the green herbs, brings back again 
to life those beings wiiose food they form. As the snail is 
not exposed to the violence of the waves, it does not require 
a strong shell like that of the periwinkle; it is therefore pro¬ 
vided w ith a thin light one, that does not encumber its move¬ 
ments ; and it is an acknow ledged fact that no art could form a 
substance, affording the protection it does, of so light a weight. 
Various kinds of snails have been employed as food; a very 
large kind w'as anciently fatted for the table by the Romans, 
and is now eaten by the Roman Catholic inhabitants of many 
parts of Europe during Lent; this kind has been introduced 
in this country, and is now very common in the chalk hills 
of Surrey and other parts. The common garden snail has 
been employed as food in consumptive cases, as it is ex¬ 
tremely nutritious and easy of digestion. From the power 
that snails possess of becoming torpid during drought, they 
are enabled to inhabit the most desert plains; and on the 
small tufts of coarse grass and herbage found there, large 
snails are abundant, and it has been thought that they formed 
part of the food of the Israelites, during their passage from 
Egypt, as large ones are abundant, and to the present day 
are eaten as a delicacy in Egypt. Snails form the favourite 
food of birds of the thrush kind, whether in a wild or con¬ 
fined state. 

Periwinkle. —The periwinkle differs in several respects 
from the snail, as we should be led to expect, on reflecting 
that the snail inhabits the land, whilst the periwinkle is ex¬ 
posed to the violence of the waves dashing on the shore. The 
shell of the snail is thin and delicate, that of the peiiwinkle 
of immense strength ; it will in fact support the weight of a 


92 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


person standing on it without being cmshed. In form they 
are both very much alike; the periwinkle is more pointed, 
having five or six whorls. The body whorl is larger than all 
the rest put together; the old shell is of a smooth and browm 
colour ^ the young ones more yellow or reddish. The animal 
has a strong lid with wiiich to close the mouth of the 
shell; of this the snail is destitute. The periwinkle is very 
extensively used for food, and is found in great numbers on 
rocks and stones, wiien left bare by the ebbing of the sea; it 
is generally collected by children, and eaten after being plainly 
boiled. 

Whelk. —This shell is very common on many parts of our 
coast. It is formed of seven or eight rounded w^horls, which 
are rough with stripes or ribs ; it is of an oval shape, and is a 
coarse-looking shell of a dingy white or browmish colour; the 
mouth is oval, and has a notch or short canal at the bottom. 
The animal it contains does not feed on sea plants, but on other 
animals, even those enclosed in, and protected by, hard shells. 
In order that it may obtain the food natural to it, it is furnished 
with a trunk or proboscis, which has at the end a number of 
small teeth ; w ith this instrument it bores through shells, and 
extracts the soft parts of the animal, on wiiich it feeds. The 
destructive pow'ers of a kind of whelk proved very annoy¬ 
ing to the builders and light-keepers of the Bell Rock Light¬ 
house. The w orkmen had obtained a number of a large kind 
of mussels, and endeavoared to plant a colony of them on the 
rock, for use as food, and for bait; the mussels were soon ob¬ 
served to open their shells and to die in great numbers; and 
it w'as ascertained that the rock wiielk, with its proboscis, 
bored a small hole in the shells, and sucked out the finer 
parts of the body of the mussel, wiiich, of course, after this, 
perished. It w^as also remarked that the whelk always bored 
the thinnest part of the mussel shell, and that the hole was 
beautifully sr^ooth and circular. As the mussels w^ere of great 
importance tO the men, they endeavoured to destroy their 
enemies; but they w ere so numerous that all their efforts to 
extirpate them, w'ere in vain, and in three years afterw^ards 
the mussels w^ere all destroyed. The principal use of the 
whelk is as bait for fish. They furnish but indifferent food, 
as they are hard and indigestible; they are, however, liked 


SHELLS- 


93 


by some persons; but, except in seasons of scarcity, are not 
generally eaten. 

Limpet. —The shell of the limpet is remarkable for its 
form. It is simply conical without, and concave within, not 
having the spiral whorls of most univalve shells. The 
animal inhabiting it is furnished with a pair of feelers, 
with eyes, and a hard firm mouth for the mastication of its 
food. It has also a broad fleshy foot, with which it fixes 
itself to rocks and stones; when it desires to do so, it causes 
a vacuum in the interior of the shell; and the air outside 
presses it on the rock, having no counteracting pressiue from 
within. It is on the same principle that a boy’s leather sucker 
is held firmlv to the stone or brick which it is pressed upon. 
This simple contrivance enables the limpet to adhere with 
such extreme tenacity to the rock upon which it is fixed, that 
it is with difficulty dislodged. Its conical form is also fitted 
to break the violence of the waves that dash against the rock : 
and thus this little animal from within its stony castle bids 
defiance to the storm, and magnifies the goodness of Him 
who, when he placed the limpet in an exposed situation, gave 
it the protection it would need. Although extremely com¬ 
mon on the rocks of many parts of the coast, the limpet is not 
much eaten in this country. Among the villages of the coast 
of Scotland it is frequently used. Its juice, obtained by boil¬ 
ing, is mixed with oatmeal, and held in high estimation. The 
great use of the limpet is as a bait for the fish that are caught 
near the shore. The fishermen detach it from the rock by 
passing a knife beneath it. 

Shells of Two Pieces, or Bivalves. —The two 
pieces or valves of which these shells are formed are united, 
at the part called the hinge, by an elastic ligament, the efiect 
of which is to keep the shell open ; but the animal, by means 
of strong muscles which pass from its body, and are attached 
inside to the valves, can close them at pleasure. It is these 
muscles that are cut away when the oyster is taken from its 
shell. At the hinge are often small prominences called teeth, 
and the points of the valves over the hinge are called beaks. The 
animals inhabiting these shells differ much from those of the 
univalves. They have no distinct head; consequently, no 


94 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


eyes, nor feelers; and their mouth is merely a small aperture 
or hole. Some of them have a foot, by which they can creep 
slowly from place to place. Others, as the oyster, cement 
themselves to the rocks, and are incapable of motion. The 
food of these animals is found in the water in which they all 
live, and is washed into their shells, when they allow the elas¬ 
tic ligament to keep it open for that purpose. 

Mussel. —The shell of the mussel consists of two pieces, of 
equal size, and of a similar shape, which is oval, and pointed at 
the beaks. The colour is dark brown; the inside is pearly white, 
blueish towards the edges. The animal has the power of fixing 
itself to one spot, or of moving from place to place, by means 
of a tongue-shaped foot, which it can push out of the shell to 
some distance, and draw in again. When they wish to move, 
they place the shell erect on its edge, and stretch out the foot. 
This, being sticky, adheres to the ground, and, when short¬ 
ened, pulls the shell along. In this way, the mussel moves 
until it finds a convenient place of residence, when it forms a 
bundle of fine silky threads—one end of which it fastens 
to the rock, and the other is attached to the animal ; and 
thus it remains securely anchored. Mussels are found on 
our coasts in immense numbers, collected in beds, which are 
uncovered at low water. Women and chikben tear them 
away from the rocks and stones to which they are attached, by 
an iron hook. In England, they are sold as they are thus 
collected; but in France they are fattened as we fatten oysters. 
The mussel, which is usually eaten boiled or pickled, is rich, 
and not unwholesome when it is in season. In the spring 
time, however, it is to many persons injurious; as it is then 
liable to be diseased. This noxious quality was long thought 
to be owing to a small crab which often takes up its abode in 
the mussel-shell; but there seems to be no reason for believ¬ 
ing this to be the case. The mussel is much used by fisher¬ 
men as bait for catching both cod and haddock. 

Oyster. —The shell of the oyster consists of two pieces, 
which are roundish, but very irregular in form, and are not 
alike ; one being nearly flat, the other convex or bulging. The 
outside is very rough and scaly, and of a dingy colour. Oys¬ 
ters are found in the sea, with the lower or convex shell fixed 


SHELLS. 95 

firmly or cemented to rocks or stones, or to one another. 
They prefer a rough and rocky bottom, to which the shells can 
adhere firmly, better than a sandy one ; and they are generally 
found in water varying from five to tw^enty fathoms in depth. 
They are fished up with a dredge, w hich is a kind of net with 
an iron scraper at the mouth—the use of which is to separate 
the oysters from the rocks. After being taken, they are 
placed, for six or eight w eeks, in ponds of sea w^ater to fatten. 
Oysters abound on the shores of Great Britain. The fishing 
for them gives employment to 10,000 people. Oysters form 
a light food, easy of digestion. 

Mother of Pearl —This is the hard, silvery, brilliant 
substance which forms the internal layer of several kinds of 
shells. The interior of our common oyster shells is of this 
nature; but the mother of pearl used in the arts is much 
more variegated with a play of colours. The large shells of 
the Indian seas alone have this pearly substance of sufficient 
thickness to be of use. The play of colours seen in mother 
of pearl depends on its peculiar structure. It has, even when 
polished, an immense number of small furrow^s running across 
the surface. These reflect the light in such a manner as to 
produce the various hues seen on the surface. These furrow's, 
though too small to be perceived by the naked eye, may be 
easily seen with a microscope ; and impressions of them may 
even be taken in very fine black sealing-wax, which will then 
possess, to a considerable extent, the same changing co¬ 
loured appearance. Mother of pearl is used in the arts for 
forming small articles; as counters, handles to knives, and 
salt-spoons, &c. &c. It is also much used for inlaying dark 
woods, with w'hich its beautiful and varied surface forms a 
striking contrast. 


.96 


INSECTS. 


Introduction. —Insects are a large and very numerous 
class of animals, distinguished by their form, which in general 
has the appearance of being cut into three parts—the head, 
trunk, and abdomen. They are also distinguished by passing 
through several changes before they arrive at the perfect 
state. 

The bodies of insects are not (like those of the higher 
animals) supported by an internal framework of bones, but by 
the hardened and in most cases horny skin which gives shape 
to the body, and forms also the joints of the limbs. 

The head of insects is covered with several distinct pieces 
of hardened skin. It usually supports two organs, or parts, 
which from their use are termed feelers; below these is the 
mouth, the direction of which is perpendicular. On the head 
also are placed the eyes, which are sometimes simple in their 
nature, sometimes very compound, each apparently simple 
eye consisting of a large number of eyes united together. 

The trunk of insects supports the wings, of which there are 
usually two, as in the house-fly, or four, as in the butterfly. 
Sometimes the tw'O upper wings are not used few: flight, but 
are hardened into a horny covering for the protection of the 
tw^o low'er, which are then very thin and delicate; this is the 
case in the ladybird, cockchaffer, beetles, &c. From the 
trunk also spring the legs, Avhich in all true insects are six in 
number. 

The breathing of insects is not carried on by lungs, nor 
does the breath pass through the mouth, but enters into the 
body by several holes or pores on the sides. 

The changes through which insects, properly so called, 
pass, are very singular. The animal when in the perfect state 
lays eggs usually in great numbers, which are of very various 
shapes, and covered w ith a skin, although destitute of a shell. 



I 


INSECTS. 


97 


The warmth of the climate hatches these eggs into larvcB, or, 
as they are more frequently termed, grubs, caterpillars, or 
maggots. These larvae are at first very small, but they usually 
eat voraciously, and grow with great rapidity. A silkworm, 
for instance, in thirty days weighs many thousand times its 
original weight. 

During their continuance in the larva state, the growth is 
too great tor the skin to enlarge sufiiciently to contain the 
body of the animal; it is therefore changed several times. 
Arrived at its full size, the larva changes into a chrysalis, or 
pupa j in which state it is encased in a horny covering, is 
destitute of limbs and of the power of motion. ' 

After a time, however, the animal bursts forth from this 
tomb, and appears as the perfect insect. Its life in this state 
is usually but short; it lays its eggs for the production of 
another generation, and dies. 

In some insects the whole of these changes are not dis¬ 
tinctly marked, the grub and perfect animal being very much 
alike; this is the case in the cockroach, &c. 

Though small, insects are of vast importance in the world; 
many yield a number of useful products; whilst others re¬ 
move with rapidity the decaying remains of animal and 
vegetable substances. 

Bees. —Bees are the well-known insects that are domes¬ 
ticated, and kept in hives by man, for the purpose of yielding 
honey and wax. In their natural state they hve in large 
societies, forming their habitation in the hollow of a tree or 
rock. (Deut. xxxii. 13; Ps. Ixxxi. 16.) This is still the case 
in some parts of America; but in Europe they are seldom 
seen in a wild state. ^ 

Like most other insects, the bee is divided into three parts, 
—namely, the head, the chest or thorax, and the abdomen. 
The head, which is fastened to the chest by a thin neck, sup¬ 
ports the feelers, the eyes, the mouth, and the various paits 
connected with it. The chest has the six legs and the four 
membranous wings attached to it; whilst the third part, or 
abdomen, consists of several rings, the last of which carries 
the sting. 

In every hive there are three kinds of bees—the drones, the. 
workers, and the queen. 

K 


98 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


The drones are easily distinguished by their nearly cyhn- 
drical form—the abdomen not tapering towards the tail; by 
their large eyes, which meet at the top of their head ; their 
chest being thickly covered with short pale brown hair, re¬ 
sembling velvet, and the wings being large and rather longer 
than the body, and they are destitute of a sting. In each 
hive there are usually from 700 to 2000 drones. 

The working bee is smaller than the drone, from which it 
is readily knoum by the abdomen tapering towards the tail, 
and by its wings not reaching quite to the end of the body. 
It is also armed with a straight sting. In a well-stocked hive 
there are from 15,000 to 20,000 working bees. 

These bees are occupied in collecting honey, pollen or bee 
bread, a sort of varnish called propolis, in forming wax, 
building the combs, and attending to the young. 

The honey is collected from flowers by means of the 
tongue, which is like a flat strap, and is used in lapping up 
the honey. This is swallowed by the bee, and is carried to 
the hive, where it is disgorged; part being used in feeding 
the young, and the rest stored up in the cells of the hive for 
winter consumption. 

Pollen, or bee-bread, is a fine yellow' dust collected by the 
bees from flowers; this is carried on the hind leg, the middle 
joint of wiiich is made broad and fumished with a rim of 
strong hairs, so as to form a sort of basket, admirably adapted 
for the purpose to which it is applied. This pollen, or bee- 
bread, mixed with honey, forms the food of the young bees; 
for which use alone it is collected. 

The substance termed propolis is a sort of resinous varnish, 
collected by the bees from the buds of trees; its use is to stop 
any holes in the hive, and to form some parts of the comb. 

The queen bee is distinguished from the w'orking bees by 
the great length of her abdomen, w'hich is in the form of a 
lengthened cone ; by. the shortness of her w ings, which do 
not reach more than half the length of her body; and she 
differs from the drones in being fiu-nished with a sting. 

In each hive there is but one queen, who is treated wdth 
the greatest respect by the other bees. It may be wondered, 
perhaps, how they can distinguish the queen in the dark hive; 
this, however, they do by the feelers. 


INSECTS. 


99 


If the queen is accidentally lost or destroyed, her absence 
is soon discovered by the workers, and the greatest confusion 
and disorder follows. They immediately proceed to supply 
her loss, by rearing up some of the young grubs with rich 
food, so that when hatched they are queens. The strongest 
of these young queens then kills the others, and retains pos¬ 
session of the hive. 

If the queen be removed from the hive, and a strange 
queen immediately placed in her stead, the workers surround 
her and keep her prisoner till she dies of hunger. But if the 
strange queen be not introduced for twenty-four hours, she is 
treated very differently, being at once admitted to the sove¬ 
reignty of the hive. 

Should a strange queen be placed in a hive whilst the right 
queen is there, the two fight; one is killed by the stings of 
the other, who remains mistress of the hive. 

The only occupation of the queen is to lay eggs in the cells 
prepared in the comb by the workers for that purpose; she 
takes no care of the young herself. The number of eggs laid 
by the queen is very great, sometimes as many as forty or 
fifty a day; one being laid in each cell. The egg is one- 
twelfth of an inch long, and of a cyhndrical form, with 
rounded ends. In three or four days it is hatched, and be¬ 
comes a grub or larva; this is immediately fed by the 
workers, with food consisting of honey and bee-bread mixed 
together. After five or six days the grub is full grown; it 
then spins for itself a silken lining to its cell, and turns into 
a pupa, or chrysalis, and in about eight days changes into a 
perfect insect. 

The eggs that are intended to become queens are deposited 
in larger cells, and the grubs fed with more nutritious food. 
Shortly before the young queens are hatched, the old one be¬ 
comes restless, and at last quits the hive with a great number 
of the bees, to seek a new home ; and it is thus that the first 
swarm occurs. The next swarms are led off by the young 
queens, as they are hatched in succession; until at last the 
number of bees left is not large enough to furnish any 
fresh swarms; then the strongest of the young queens kills 
all the others, and remains mistress of the hive. 

The usual number of swarms is two or three; in a very 
populous hive sometimes as many as five swarms are sent off; 
but this is rare. 


100 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


Each swarm, as it quits the hive, usually clusters on some 
bush or tree in the neigbourhood; and, if it be not hived, will 
take possession, of a hollow tree, or some other convenient 
place. As soon as the swarm is accommodated with an empty 
hive, they proceed about building a comb. The first step to 
this is the formation of the wax. This substance is not, as 
was long supposed, collected by the bees from flowers, but is 
formed by them. During the operation they hang themselves 
in festoons from the top of the empty hive, and remain thus 
clinging to one another for some time. Whilst thus sus¬ 
pended the wax is formed in little scales, eight in number, 
which appear between the rings of the abdomen. After 
the wax is formed, the bees commence building the first 
comb, by placing the wax against the top of the hive. As 
fast as the wax is placed by one set of bees, another set 
commence hollowing it out into cells on each side, the wax 
that is dug out of the hollows being added to the edges of the 
cells to deepen them. As soon as the first comb is so far ad¬ 
vanced as to contain two or three rows of cells, another comb 
is commenced on each side of it, about half an inch apart, 
so as to leave room for the passing of the bees. All the 
combs are begun at the roof of the hive, and built down¬ 
wards. The hive when full consists of a number of these 
combs hanging perpendicularly from the roof, and about half 
an inch apart, with cells on both sides. 

The cells are six-sided, and it has been proved by mathe¬ 
matical calculation that no other shape could be adopted 
without a waste of wax. 

The cells in the comb serve for various purposes: some are 
for the queen to deposit the eggs in, where they are hatched 
into grubs, and finally into young bees. In another set of 
cells bee-bread is stored up, and some contain honey for 
winter use. The latter are joined to the sides of the hive, as 
the weight would break them down if they only hung from 
the top. 

The bees never consume the honey that has been stored 
up, except in seasons of scarcity, as in winter; each cell, as it 
is filled with honey, being sealed up with a wax covering. 

Bees’-wax. —Bees’-wax, the formation of which has 
abeady been described under the article “ Bees,” is prepared 


INSECTS. 


101 


for use by washing and melting the comb, the honey having 
been previously extracted; in this state it is yellow, and has 
a peculiar smell. As it is much used in this country, large 
quantities are brought from Africa, Cuba, and Russia. Yellow 
wax is freed from the impurities mixed with it by melting, 
when the heavier particles sink to the bottom, and the lighter 
rise to the to}), and are removed by skimming. In this state 
it is cast in the form of cakes, and is used for making oint¬ 
ments, cements, &c.; it melts quickly under the heat of boil¬ 
ing water, and becomes soft at the temperature of the human 
body. If it is worked about in the warm hand, it quickly be¬ 
comes sufficiently soft to take the impression of any object it 
is pressed upon, and it retains the form when cold and hard; 
in this manner wax is much used by dentists, &c. to take 
copies of small objects. But the great consumption of yellow 
wax is in the formation of white wax. This is accomplished by 
the process of bleaching; the yellow wax is first melted and 
freed from its impurities, and then formed into thin ribands 
or shavings, by pouring it into water. These ribands of wax 
are then laid upon canvas stretched between poles in the 
bleaching ground, where by the action of the sun upon them 
they finally become colourless, and are cast into small flat 
cakes and sold as white wax. In this state it is used for 
making artificial flowers and fruit, for waxing sewing thread, 
&c., but chiefly for making wax candles. The manufacture 
of wax candles differs from the mode ado])ted in making 
any other kind. Common candles are made by dipping the 
wicks into the melted tallow a sufficient number of times to 
render them fit for use; the name of dips is given them from 
the manner in which they are made. The candles called 
moulds are made by pouring the melted tallow into y)ewter 
moulds in which the wick is stretched; when cold the wick is 
pulled, and the candle comes readily out of the mould. But 
if wax were to be treated in the same way, it would not come 
out readily from the mould ; therefore another mode is pur¬ 
sued in forming: candles of this substance. The wicks are 
hung to a hoop susj)ended from the ceiling over a pan ot 
melted wax; the workman pours over each wick a quantity 
of wax; this adheres to the wick; but as the candle will be 
larger at the bottom from the running down of the melted 
wax, it is unliooked and hung up again bottom iq)wards, 


102 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


when wax is again poured over it, and it becomes of a more 
uniform cylindrical shape. It is then taken from the hoop, 
laid on a moist slab, and rolled with smooth boards until it is 
of the proper shape ; and the required length is given it by 
cutting off the rough end. The wicks that are used for can¬ 
dles are made of loosely spun cotton. The use of candles for 
lighting is well known. When the wick is lighted a part of 
the wax or tallow is melted; this portion is drawn up by the 
wick into the flame, and there burns. In order to get the 
greatest amount of light from a candle, it should be snuffed 
frequently, as it then gives out much more light, and does 
not burn away faster. If the wick is long the flame is dull; 
that part of the tallow that would give out the most light, 
instead of burning, settles on the wick in large clots. It has 
been found by experiment that a candle immediately after 
snuffing gives the greatest amount of light, in twelve minutes 
time only one-third as much, in nineteen minutes less than a 
quarter, and in half an hour not one-sixth as much as at first. 

Black Beetle, or Cockroach. —This annoying insect 
now so very common in many houses, and almost always 
found in bakehouses, corn-mills, and on board ships, was not 
originally a native of this country, but was brought here either 
from Asia or from America. When full grown it is about one 
inch long, of a dark brown colour, and nauseous disagreeable 
smell. The head, which is partly hidden by the chest, is fur¬ 
nished with two long thread-like feelers, each formed of a 
large number of minute joints. The male is readily distin¬ 
guished from the female by its wings, which are covered by 
the wing cases, and extend half the length of the body. The 
female has only the rudiments of wings, and is much broader 
than the male. The eggs are usually sixteen in number, and 
are contained in an oblong case, which is at first white, but 
afterwards becomes brown and hard. Whilst this case is soft 
the female carries it about with her, being attached to the 
extremity of the body ; afterwards she fixes it to various sub¬ 
stances by means of a gummy matter. When the young 
escape from the egg, they are not in the form of grub, but 
appear very like the perfect insect, though they are destitute 
of wings. The cockroach does not, like the butterfly, undergo 
the complete set of insect transformations from egg to grub. 


INSECTS. 


103 


then to chr 5 'salis, and lastly to the perfect insect. Cock¬ 
roaches are nocturnal animals, exceedingly active at night, 
but concealing themselves in crevices, &c. during the day. 
They run extremely fast, and are very tenacious of life. Their 
food consists of meal, bread, and various eatables, raw pota¬ 
toes, &c. They are extremely voracious, and when their 
usual food fails them, will devour almost anything that comes 
in their way, as woollen and silk garments, and even the 
upper leather of shoes. 

The injury they do in some parts of Russia and Finland, 
where they are very numerous, is extreme. On shipboard 
also they are very numerous and destructive. They may be 
destroyed by poisoned wafers, or by catching them in a box 
with a glass top like a tea-cup without a bottom, down which 
they slip and cannot ascend; they are then readily destroyed 
by being tliroum into boiling water. 

Silkworm Moth, and its product. —The silkworm, 
though now spread over a great part of Europe, and even of 
America, originally came from China. 

The animal is erroneously termed a worm, as it is really a 
kind of cater])illar, and passes through all the changes which 
so strikingly distinguish insects from other animals. 

The eggs from which the silkworms are hatched are about 
the size of mustard seeds. The caterpillar or silkworm is at 
first very small, and of a dark colour ; it however rapidly in¬ 
creases in size, becoming cream-coloured, and feeding vora¬ 
ciously on the leaves of the mulberry, which form its natural 
food. 

In about eight weeks the animal arrives at its full growth, 
having during this period changed its skin four or even five 
times; before shedding each skin the silkworm refrains from 
eating, remaining in a quiet state; it then bursts the old skin 
near the head, and works its way out. 

When full grown its length is from two and a half to three 
inches; it then commences forming the cocoon of silk, in¬ 
closed in which it lies as a chrysalis till it undergoes the 
change to a moth. The animal usually selects some corner 
in which to perform this operation, moving its head from side 
to side, and fixing the thread at different points, so as com¬ 
pletely to inclose itself. As the worm is inside the cocoon, it 


104 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


follows that the outside portions of it are first formed, and the 
interior last. In about five days the animal ceases to spin, 
having during that time diminished very much in length ; it 
then becomes torpid, changes its skin, and appears in the 
form of a chrysalis inclosed in a dark brown hard case. In 
this state it remains from a fortnight to three weeks, and then 
changes into the moth or perfect insect, which is enabled to 
escape by softening a portion of the cocoon with a fluid which 
it has the power of forming. 

The whole cocoon spun by the silkworm is not equally 
valuable ; the external part is flossy, weak, and comparatively 
useless. The first process in obtaining the raw silk from the 
cocoon is the destruction of the chrysalis *, this is easily per¬ 
formed by placing it in an oven heated considerably. After 
the animals are killed the rough outer floss is pulled off, and 
the cocoons are thrown into a vessel of hot water placed over 
a fire, in order to loosen the thread. The whole is then 
stirred with a bunch of twigs which catch the loose ends of 
the threads. Several of these taken together are wound off 
upon a reel; they are then tied up into hanks, which are 
ready for the use of the silk manufucturer, and ai’e known by 
the name of raw silk. 

In order to form a single pound of raw silk 2000 cocoons 
are necessary, the silk on each weighing about three and a 
half grains. Each cocoon is formed of one single unbroken 
thread, the length of which varies from 600 to 1000 feet. 

The rearing of silkworms is not carried on to any extent in 
this country, as the climate is too cold, and the mulberry 
trees too late in putting forth their leaves. Our supplies of 
raw silk are chiefly obtained from the south of Europe and 
Asia. 

A number of the cocoons are preserved each year, the ani¬ 
mals not being destroyed, but allowed to complete their 
change and come forth as moths. These are of a pale cream 
colour, and are covered with a fine down : they are furnished 
with short combs like feelers, and do not use their wings to 
fly, merely fanning the air with them. After a short time the 
eggs are laid; they are firmly cemented to the substance on 
which they are deposited, and are not hatched in temperate 
climates until the following year. The object of the moth’s 
existence being then accomplished, it shortly dies. 


INSECTS. 


105 


It has been remarked as an instance of the goodness of the 
Creator to man, that those animals most useful to him he has 
ordered should be the most easily managed; thus there is 
scarcely a caterpillar which could be reared by man with so 
small an amount of trouble as that which produces silk. 

Butterfly. —In this country the most common kinds of 
this insect are the large and small cabbage butterflies ; both 
well known by the destructive effects of their caterpillars 
upon cabbage, brocoli, turnips, and other vegetables of the 
same kind. The caterpillar of the large cabbage butterfly is 
green, with three yellow lines running down the body, and is 
covered with black spots each having a single hair growing 
out of the centre. The butterfly which is first seen in April 
has two pair of wings, of which the foremost are white above 
tipped with black, and slightly yellow beneath; the hinder 
being powdered with black. 

The small white cabbage butterfly does not appear until 
about May; its caterpillars are bluish green, and are too 
often to be found in the very heart of cabbages, cauliflowers, 
&c. Were it not for the immense number of caterpillars 
destroyed by the various small birds, their ravages woidd be 
excessive. They also fall a prey to a small fly that lays its 
eggs in the body of the caterpillar; these hatch into grubs, 
which feed on the fat of the insect, and eventually destroy it 
before it changes into a chrysalis. 

Like all true insects, these animals undergo several changes 
during life. They are hatched fi*om small eggs (which are 
laid by the perfect insect or butterfly); these give birth to the 
caterpillar, an animal having a long body formed of twelve 
rings united together, and furnished on each side with nine 
breathing pores. The bodies of some kinds of caterpillar are 
covered with hairs, those of others are naked. Each cater¬ 
pillar is further furnished with sixteen feet, of these three pair 
near the head are horny; these afterwards become the six 
legs of the butterfly; the other five pair behind, being of no 
use to the perfect insect, are shed with the skin when the 
animal changes its state. 

The head is small, and furnished with homy jaws which 
open sideways, and are well adapted for the devouring of their 
food. During the short life of the caterpillar it eats vora- 


106 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


ciously, grows very rapidly, and sheds its skin several times ; 
when full grown it ceases to eat, fastens itself by a silken 
thread it has the power of forming to some object, and there 
changes into a chrysalis : in this state it remains some time, 
and then bursts forth as a jierfect butterfly. 

The cabbage caterpillar usually attaches itself to a wall to 
undergo this change, and its appearance when hanging in 
this situation by its silken thread must be familiar to most 
persons. 

The life of the jierfect insect is but short, it flutters about 
in the summer’s sun, alighting upon the expanded flowers, 
and feeding upon their honey, which it sucks up by its 
spiral trunk, unrolling it for that purpose; it lays a large 
number of eggs, and almost immediately after dies. 

In consequence of the very great injury caused by these in¬ 
sects to the vegetables used as food by man, various means 
have been proposed for lessening their numbers, but the only 
eflectual one seems to be the destruction of the caterpillars. 

CocKCHAFFER. —The cockcliaffer is a large insect of the 
beetle class, which are distinguished by having their thin and 
delicate v ings concealed and protected when not in use, by 
two hard and horny wing cases. These latter in the cock- 
chaffer are bromi; the insect is also known by the extremity 
of the body being pointed, and b}^ its short fan-like feelers. 

During the day-time it is at rest in trees and hedges; after 
sunset it flies heavily with a loud humming noise in search of 
its mate, striking against various objects in its course; whence 
it is frequently termed the blind beetle. 

The perfect insects feed on the leaves of trees, and they 
have been known to swarm in such immense numbers as to 
devour every green leaf over a large tract of country. 

Their life in the perfect state is but short; the female lays 
a number of eggs six or seven inches deep in the ground, and 
then dies. 

The eggs produce a kind of grub, termed, from the colour 
of the body, white worms. They have a small red head, and 
acquire when full grown the length of one inch and a half. 
They remain in the ground between three and four years, 
feeding upon the roots’of various vegetables, and, where they 
are numerous, destroying the whole vegetation of a country. 


INSECTS. 


107 


During the ploughing season large numbers are eaten by the 
rooks, who may be observed following the course of the 
plough, and seeking for them in the newly turned earth. 

These grubs also devour the roots of grass, therpby de¬ 
stroying the plants. In these cases the rooks may be ob¬ 
served to pull up the dead tufts of turf, for the purpose of 
obtaining the insect; whence many persons have supposed 
that the rooks were destructive to the grass, instead of being, 
as they really are, exceedingly beneficial. 

During w inter the grubs of the cockchaffer descend below 
the reach of the frost, to a depth of two feet from the sur¬ 
face ; in the spring they again ascend. 

The names by which the cockchaffer is known are veiy 
various in different parts of the country. From its colour it 
is called brown beetle, and brown clock; from the noise with 
which it flies, miller; and from the time of its first appear¬ 
ance, may-bug. 

Grasshopper. —Grasshoppers are well-known insects, 
remarkable for ])Ossessing in an almost equal degree the 
powers of flying and leaping. The body is thin, long, and 
flattened at the sides; the legs are six in number, the hinder 
ones being much larger than the others, and longer than the 
body. Each hind leg consists of three distinct })arts—the 
thigh, the shank, and the foot; these legs are not used in 
walking, but are only employed in leaping. When the ani¬ 
mal wishes to leap, it draws the feet of the hind legs close to 
that part of the thigh that joins the body ; the joint uniting 
the thigh and shank being bent to a very sharp angle, high 
above the back of the insect ; the various joints of the leg 
are then suddenly and powerfully strengthened, and the foot 
thus forcibly striking the ground, the animal is propelled 
high into the air. 

The wings of the perfect insect are thin and membranous; 
when at rest they are not to be observed, as they are folded 
up in a fan-like form under the narrow wing cases. 

The chirping noise made by the insect is caused by the 
rubbing of the thighs of the hind legs against the horny wing 
covers. The appetite of these insects is rather voracious; 
they feed entirely on vegetable substances, such as herbage of 
various kinds. 


108 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


The eggs of the female are deposited in the ground, and 
the young hatched from them resemble the old ones in ap¬ 
pearance ; but they are not furnished wdth either wings or 
wdng covers, consequently they are unable to fly or chirp. 
After some time these parts grow, and the young then be¬ 
come changed into the perfect insect. 



109 


MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS, 


Boxes. —Bones form the internal framework of the bodies 
of men, and of animals of the higher classes. In order to 
support the weight of the animal bones must be firm, un¬ 
yielding, tough, strong, and able to bear pressing, pulling, or 
twisting, without being liable to bend or break. 

To combine all these pro])erties, so as to fit them for their 
office, the all-wise Creator has formed them of two substances, 
one of which gives them tougluiess, the other firmness. 

If we bum a bone in the fire, nothing is left but a brittle 
earthy substance, which before the bone was burnt gave it 
firmness and hardness; whilst the substance that was de¬ 
stroyed in the burning resembled glue, and its use was to 
produce toughness an(l tenacity, with a little elasticity. 

If bones were all earth they would be brittle, as is the case 
with the burnt bone. If they had no earth in them they 
would bend like gristle, and could not support the weight of 
the body. 

Bones are of several uses to animals. 1 st. By their hard¬ 
ness and firmness they give support and shape to the bod3^ 
2nd. They inclose and protect parts liable to be injured : thus 
the bones of the head protect the brain, and those of the 
chest the heart and lungs. 3rd. The bones keep the limbs 
firm, and enable us to move them at the joints or the jilaces 
w here they are connected tog^ether; and in order that the 
ends of the bones may move more easily and smoothly, they 
are covered w ith a smooth gristle, and kept moist by an unc¬ 
tuous fluid. 

The long bones of the limbs are hollow% and are filled with 
an oily substance which hardens when cold into marrow. 
The advantage of the bones being hollow is, that they are 

L 



110 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


lighter than if solid, and the same weight of hon^ is much 
stronger when hollow than it would be if formed into a solid 
body. 

Bones are a veiy im])ortant article of commerce ; the larger 
bones are used for A arious purposes, they sur{)ass wood in 
hardness, and are not brittle. 'I’ooth and nail brushes, knife 
handles, combs, paper knives, spoons, and a variety of small 
articles, are either turned or cut out of them. 

The shavings and sawdust of bones formed in making 
these articles, is used under the names of ivory or bone dust 
for jelly. 

If bones are heated in iron vessels they turn black, and in 
this state are termed bone black, or animal charcoal, which is 
much used in bleaching, and in clarifying sugar. (See 
Sugar.) 

But the great use of bones is as manure; for this pui-pose 
they are collected from every part of this country, and even 
from the continent, taken to the bone mills and crushed, 
sometimes coarsely, sometimes to a fine powder. In this 
state the farmer either scatters them over his land, or sets 
a quantity with his seed. 

'I’he earthy matter of bones contains a large portion of 
phospV''^rus ; this is extracted from them by a chemical pro¬ 
cess, and used extensively for the manufacture of lucifer 
matches. 

Bristles. —Bristles are the strong coarse hairs from the 
backs of swine. They are veiy much used for the purpose of 
making the best kind of brushes, brooms, &c. Shoemakers 
also use them instead of needles in sewing the soles of shoes 
and boots. The thin or split end of the bristle is twisted 
with the end of the thread, and the stiff end is easily passed 
through the hole made by the aAvl, and the thread pulled 
after it. Needles would not answer for this purj)ose, as the 
force required to push them through the leather would break 
them. - 

The bristles used in England are chiefly brought from 
Russia and Prussia, about 2,000,000 pounds being annually 
imported to this country. Although the hog is entirely 
covered with bristles, yet those on the back only are of suffi¬ 
cient size and strength for use. 


MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. 


Ill 


Coral. —The various substances known to us by the name 
of coral, are the produce of certain animals inhabiting the 
ocean. Each of these animals has a cylindrical or oval body 
without a head; the body is hollow, and contains the 
stomach, which has but one opening, and this is surrounded 
by several feelers, arranged in a star-like manner around the 
mouth. The food of the coral animal consists of other small 
animals living in the water; when these latter approach 
w ithin reach of the feelers of the former they are immediately 
seized, and forced through the mouth into the stomach. 

Ibese animals do not live alone, but in vast numbers 
together; growing like the separate buds of a tree upon a 
kind of stem, which is the substance we call coral. If a 
piece of w hite coral is examined, it will be found to be fur¬ 
nished with numerous holes, each of wdiich was the habita¬ 
tion of a single animal. When undisturbed the animal comes 
out of its cell, moving its star-like feelers in search of food; 
but when alai-med, contracting within the cavity. All these 
animals are joined together by a thin flesliy skin covering the 
coral. As the number of the animals increases so does the 
coral branch out and grow, new cells being formed for the 
new animals. The coral is formed of lime chiefly, which the 
animals separate from the sea water. 

Immense masses of coral grow together, forming rocks or 
coral reefs, which rise up to the surface of the sea. Some¬ 
times these are near the shore, coasting the main land for 
hundreds of miles, as in some parts of Australia. 

In other parts coral islands rise up to the surface of the 
sea, stop})ing at the top of the water; upon them sand and 
sea weeds are drifted ; the latter, by their decay, form mould, 
in which seeds brought by the currents of the ocean grow^, 
until at last an island is formed fit for the habitation of man. 
Numbers of the islands in the southern seas have been pro¬ 
duced in this manner. One circumstance is requisite to the 
inhabiting these islands by man—namely, that fresh water 
should be readily obtained; it is, how'ever, an extraordinary 
fact, that if wells be dug in the coral islands they are found 
to be filled with fresh water. 

It is not by the growth of one kind of coral that these 
reefs and islands are formed, but by that of several. 

Alany kinds are brought to this country, all of them being 

L 2 


112 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


deprived of the animal forming them. The white coral has 
ah'eady been described; other kinds are yellow; but the 
most valuable is the red coral, prized from its colour, and great 
hardness, which enables it to receive a fine polish, and its 
freedom from pores or cells ; its use for necklaces and other 
ornaments is well known. It is found in the Mediterranean 
Sea, in water of a moderate depth, and is obtained by divers. 

When ahve, the red coral is everywhere covered by a fleshy 
skin, upon which are placed animals like those before de¬ 
scribed ; these when touched shrink back into the skin, but 
cannot penetrate the stem, as there are not holes for them. 

Foot of Duck. —The foot of the duck is wonderfully 
formed to suit exactly the habits and wants of the bird to 
which it belongs. As the duck has to seek its food in w^ater, 
it wants a foot ca})able of jiropelling it from one part of the 
stream to another; to answer this purpose we find that the 
foot is webbed—that is, a thin soft skin or Aveb stretches 
from one toe to another, and unites them; when the duck, 
floating on the top of the w ater, wishes to swim forward, the 
webbed foot is pushed back against the water, and when the 
toes and web are spread out, the foot is large, and does not 
pass easily through the water, the body of the duck, w'hich 
floats lightly on the top, is pushed on; the other foot is then 
used, and so on alternately as long as the bird wishes to swim 
forwards. After each foot has been struck back against the 
w'ater, it has to be brought forward before a second stroke 
can be made; if it were s])read out when brought foiavard, as 
it is when pushed back, the body of the duck would be pulled 
back again. But this does not happen, for when bringing 
the foot forward to make a second stroke, the duck closes 
it; the toes, instead of being spread out, fall together, and 
are bent, so that they offer scarcely any surface to resist the 
water; fi'om this account it will at once be jierceived how- ad¬ 
mirably the duck’s webbed foot fits it for a waterfow l. When 
the bird w ishes to swim towards one side, it strikes the water 
W'ith the foot of the opposite side several times in succession. 

Though this foot is beautifidly formed for sw’imming, it 
prevents the animal moving rapidly on land; and its broad 
boat-shaped body, that enables it to float so lightly on the 
water, also renders its progress on the ground waddling and 


MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. 


113 


unsteady: but its chief food is found in the water, and to 
that its formation is suited. 

Feathers. —Feathers form the covering or clothing of 
the class of animals called birds. The importance of feathers 
to these animals uall appear in the strongest light if we con¬ 
sider their habits. First, warmth is essential for birds; they 
are frequently exposed to great cold, as in the water, or when 
they ascend very high in the air, where the temperature is 
always low. Again, the heat of their bodies is greater than 
that of other animals, and requires to be kept up by a warm 
clothing. It is also necessar}' that their covering should be 
exceedingly light: if it were heavy and dense, it is evident it 
would unfit them for flight. Of the lightness of a bird’s 
covering we may form a good idea when we find that the plu¬ 
mage of a common owl (a bird abundantly clothed) only 
weighs one ounce and a half. This lightness must be com¬ 
bined with great strength, as the feathers of the wings are tl e 
parts with which they strike the air violently to impel them 
in their flight. Lastly, their whole covering must be so 
smooth as to offer the least possible resistance to the air in 
their rapid passage through it. 

On attentive examination we shall find that these requi¬ 
sites, warmth, lightness, strength, and smoothness, are com¬ 
bined in the covering of birds in a manner that proclaims the 
wisdom of Him who has declared in his word that without 
Him not a sparrow falleth to the ground. Every feather con¬ 
sists of three parts—viz., the quill or barrel, the shaft, and 
the vane or beard. The quill is that part of a feather by 
which it is attached to the skin ; it is formed of a horny sub¬ 
stance, which is of a hard and elastic nature, and is remarkable 
for being both strong and light. Lightness is given to the 
quill by its being formed in the shape of a hollow cylinder, 
which is filled w ith air; at the same time its strength is in¬ 
creased by this contrivance, for if the quill w'ere formed of 
only the same w eight of material solid, it would be consider¬ 
ably w'eaker. It is for this same reason that bones are hol¬ 
low, that is, to ensure strength with the least possible degree 
of weight. That the quill may possess strength in all direc¬ 
tions, it is formed of two sets of fibres (though, from their 
being transparent, this is not readily seen). One set runs the 


114 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


length of the quill; it is this set that we tear apart (not 
across) when we split up a pen; the other set runs round 
these, and binds them tight together : if we do not scrape off 
the circular set before making a pen the slit is jagged, be¬ 
cause we have torn these across violently. The membranous 
substance found within the quill is the dried remains of the 
pulp that originally nourished the feather. 

The shaft of the feather is four-sided; it is largest near the 
quill, and gradually lessens in size to the end; it is slightly 
bent, to adapt it to the shape of the bird. It is covered with 
a horny substance like that of the quill, only not so thick, 
and is filled, with a light elastic substance called pith. 

The vane or beard of the feather is composed of a number 
of flat barbs, or pieces which grow from the sides of the shaft. 
They are placed with their flat sides towards each other, their 
edges being turned upwards and downwards; this method of 
placing them is the strongest that could be adopted, as it is 
their edges that strike the air when the bird is flying. 

In looking at an unruffled feather, we may notice that the 
barbs or pieces of the vane are united together, and that they 
are not to be parted without some force. It is evident they 
do not adhere by any sticky matter, or the feather would 
feel clammy; and if we ruffle the barbs, and then smooth the 
feather from the quill to the end, they reunite. This reunion 
of the barbs after separation is effected by the following 
beautiful contrivance :—each barb has a set of tiny hooks 
springing from the top of each side; those from the side 
nearest the quill turn their points upwards, those on the other 
side hook dowuiwards. When the feather is unruffled, these 
little hooks are all caught in one another, holding the barbs 
together; wiien the feather is ruffled by any force, they are 
torn apart, but not broken; for as soon as the sides of each 
barb are brought together by smoothing the feather, or by 
the bird’s pruning itself with its bill, they reunite. 

Perhaps some may suppose that the vane w'ould have been 
netter formed of one piece than of many barbs hooked to¬ 
gether; but this is a mistake. Suppose the vane formed of 
one piece, and by any accident torn, it w^ould not be in the 
bird’s pow'er to repair it; but if the barbs of the vane are ever 
so much ruffled, the bird has only to draw the feather a few 
times through its bill, and it again forms one firm flat body 
to resist the wind. 


MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. 


115 


We often notice that the part of the vane nearest the quill 
is downy, and the barbs do not adhere together; this downy 
portion is next the skin of the bird, and serves to keep the 
body warm. From the top of the quill where it joins the 
shaft, a small tuft of down frequently arises; this is some¬ 
times so large as to give the appearance of two feathers on 
one quill. 

Feathers are often modified so as to suit the wants of the 
particular species of bird. Thus birds of prey, such as 
hawks and eagles, have hard firm feathers, extremely strong 
and elastic. Owls have soft downy feathers, so that they fly 
silently at night, and surprise their prey. The ostrich and 
other similar birds, that do not fly, have the barbs not joined 
by hooks, but loose and flowing. Swimming birds have their 
feathers close and oily, to prevent the water getting to their 
skin, &c. 

The coverings of birds are of great use to mankind, and 
form articles of commerce, under the names of quills, feathers, 
and down. 

Quills are chiefly used for the manufacture of writing pens, 
and are obtained from wings of geese; large numbers are 
kept in the fenny parts of England, and are deprived of the 
quills and feathers several times a year. The quills when 
pulled from the animals are sorted according to their size and 
quality; the smallest are sold under the name of pinions. 
Before they are sold for use, quills are frequently stained 
yellow. 

The quills of other large birds are sometimes used for pens, 
but they are not equal to those of geese. The quills of swans 
are collected in Russia for making pens. 

Feathers are used in this country for stuffing beds, bolsters, 
and pillows. 

The most valued are obtained from geese, the inferior kinds 
from barn-door fowls, ducks, &c. 

Down is the warm under clothing of many birds, the deli¬ 
cate and elastic filaments of which it consists are not hooked 
together like the barbs of feathers, but remain separate. 
Down is most abundant under the feathers of swimming 
birds, where it is requisite to prevent the water abstracting 
the heat of their bodies; consequently it is much more abun¬ 
dant on the under surface of the body than elsewhere, as in 


116 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


many swimming birds that part is always In the water. Ihe 
down of these birds is never wetted, as the close oily layer of 
feathers protects it from the water. The down of the swan is 
made into small tippets for the neck, &c., being preserved on 
the skin in the same manner as fur is. Some water birds, as 
the eider duck, pluck the down from their breasts to line their 
nests with ; this is collected by the natives of the frozen re¬ 
gions where the birds reside, and sold for a high price to stuff 
quilts, &c., for persons to sleep under in cold climates. 

Fur. —Fur is the name given to the skins of animals in 
which the hair is veiy fine and close ; these skins, after being 
removed from the flesh, are dried without the hair being 
scraped off, sometimes by the aid of alum water, and at others 
merely stretched out in the sun. The use of the covering of 
fur to the animal is to protect it against the changes of tem¬ 
perature. Fur is a very bad conductor of heat, or in other 
words, it does not allow the warmth of the body to pass 
through it, so that tlie heat natural to the animal is ke])t 
from escaping. -That benevolent care which is found every¬ 
where in the structure of animals, is not in any part more 
evident than in their covering. The fur of all animals is 
suited to their habits, to the climate they inhabit, and even 
to the season of the year. If we examine a hare or rabbit in 
summer, and again in winter, we shall find that at the latter 
season it is thicker and closer, much warmer, and therefore 
better suited to the cold of the season, than if only of its 
summer thickness. So ivell are tjie fur dealers aware of this 
fact, that they only pursue the animals yielding fur in the 
winter; and even our own hare skins are w^orth much less in 
warm than in frosty weather. God’s care of the animal does 
not consist in merely thickening the fur; in many instances 
he has so wisely ordered it, that with the approach of cold the 
fur changes colour, passing from the summer colour of the 
animal to white. This is the case with the hare in the noi-th 
of Scotland, with the stoat in this country, and with almost 
all the animals in the cold polar regions. At first sight this 
may seem anything but a wise provision, for we all know that 
in summer dark clothes are warmer than light ones, as they 
absorb more rapidly the warmth of the sun; but in extreme 
northern climates the sun has very little power in winter, and 


MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. 


117 


the light coloured fur of the animal prevents the escape of its 
own warmth much more completely than a dark coloured fur 
would do. Another advantage the animal gains by its change 
of colour is, that when the ground is covered with snow, the 
small quadrupeds are much less easily discovered by their 
numerous enemies, as hawks, owls, &c., and so more readily 
escape destruction. It should be borne in mind that the 
change of colour does not take place by the dark hairs falling 
out and being replaced by light ones, which would expose the 
animal to severe cold, but the line hairs of the fur remaining 
on change colour. So rapidly will the fur become white, that 
it has been noticed that all the hairs on an animal have 
changed by a week’s exposure to severe cold. Man, observing 
how completely animals are protected by their warm cover¬ 
ings, has long been accustomed to adapt them to his own 
use, more esj)ecially when he resides in cold climates. Many 
thousand animals are annually destroyed, their skins dried 
with the fur on, and then used for clothing. In cold climates 
the garments are frequently made or lined with fur; in this 
country they are only used in winter, and then partly for or¬ 
nament. The principal furs used for this purpose are those 
of the hare, rabbit; the ermine, which is merely the skin of 
the stoat in its winter dress; various squirrels, sable, fitch, 
or polecat, &c. &c. The fur of the beaver, the hare, rabbit, 
and some other animals, is also used for the purpose of cover¬ 
ing beaver hats and bonnets, being cut off the skin and fas¬ 
tened by varnish or glue upon the body of the hat. 

Glue. —Glue is an animal substance much used in the 
various arts as a strong cement. The best is obtained from 
the skins of animals, the small cuttings of which, rejected by 
the currier, being generally employed. An inferior glue is 
made from the sinews and hoofs of animals. 

These materials are first well washed in lime water, which 
assists in removing any grease; they are then boiled in 
water until all the soluble parts are dissolved; the impuri¬ 
ties that rise to the surface are skimmed off; the liquor is 
then strained to separate it from the undissolved pieces of 
skin, and lastly boiled down until it becomes on cooling a 
very firm hard jelly. This jelly is cut into thin flat square 


118 


, ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


pieces, wbicli are dried uj)on coarse netting; the depressions 
left by the network are always visible on the dried glue, 

AVben of a good quality, glue is of a deep rich brown 
colour, semi-transparent, and witlfout spots or clouds in its 
interior; and it shoubl be perfectly soluble in water, not 
leaving any sediment. The solution of glue in water is, when 
cold, a jelly-like mass, which varies in firmness with the quan¬ 
tity of glue dissolved; even when made very firm it readily 
melts with heat, and it is in this state that glue is used as 
a cement. It is a{)plied whilst hot to the substances which it 
is wished to unite; they are then pressed together, and as 
the glue becomes firm on cooling they remain cemented, al¬ 
though it is not till after some days (when the glue has 
become perfectly dry) that the joint is very firm. 

The use of glue depends upon its being so readily soluble, 
especially in hot water, its adhesiveness when dissolved, and 
also u])on its becoming solid as it cools and dries. Its tena¬ 
city when used as a cement is very great; frequently the 
wood-work joined by it will break at some other place, and 
not at that at which it is cemented. Glue is useless in damp 
situations. 

In order to prevent the glue from being burnt in heating, 
the carpenter employs a vessel called a glue-pot; this consists 
of two vessels, one placed within the other. The outer one, 
which is much the larger, is partly filled with water, whilst in 
the inner one the glue to be dissolved is placed. Its use is 
evident, for as long as any water remains in the outer vessel 
the glue cannot be burnt. 

The workmen using glue are chiefly carpenters, joiners, and 
cabinet makers; a weak solution of it resembling jelly in 
appearance, is much used by whitewashers in order to pre¬ 
vent the whiting from being readily rubbed olF when dry. ’ 

Isinglass, so much used for making jellies for eating, is 
only a purer kind of glue obtained from the air-bladders or 
sounds of several kinds of fish. And a pure kind of glue is 
obtained from the skins of animals, and sold under the name 
of gelatine for the same purpose. 

II en’s Foot. —The fowl belongs to that class of birds which 
in a natural state seek their food (which consists of insects. 


MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. 


119 


gruLs, and seeds) in the ground; to enable them to do this, 
they are formed with exceedingly strong legs and feet, and toes 
furnished with stout blunt curved claws. The feet are used 
for scratching up the loose surface of the earth, the bird sup¬ 
porting itself on one leg, and scratching powerfully with the 
other. The claws grow very quickly, so that they are of a 
sufficient length to be serviceable to the animal. 

As these birds have to seek their food on the ground, they 
do not greatly want the power of dying, the strong legs that 
serve them for scratching give them the ability of running 
very fast, and of moving readily from one place to another in 
search of food. 

Horn. —The substance knowm as horn is vdelded by a large 
number of ruminating animals; as, for instance, by the ox, the 
goat, the sheep, and the antelope. The same term is often 
a])})lied to the antlers of the stag or deer tribe; but very 
erroneously, as these latter consist not of horn but of solid 
bone, are generally branched, and are also shed annually, 
whilst true horns are permanent. The horns of the ox, &c. 
are of a conical form, and generally somew'hat curved. They 
are formed of a bony core in the centre, which rises from the 
bone of the forehead; this is supplied with nerves and with 
the vessels w'hich form the horny portion that surrounds it 
like a sheath. 

Horn, like the nails of the fingers, is quite insensible—the 
tip ma)'^ be cut off without giving pain; but if the bony core 
be injured, it bleeds freely, and the sufferings of the animal 
appear very great. The chief difference between horn and 
bone is, that the former is destitute of earthy matter; hence 
arises its semi-transparency. 

The horns used in manufacture are obtained chiefly from 
the bull and the cow; so great is the demand for them in this 
country that they are brought here in large numbers from 
Russia, the Cape of Good Hope, and South America. 

Horn is prepared by first soaking it m water for five or six 
weeks; this loosens the core, and it can then easily be pulled 
out from the true horn. The solid part of the horn, near the 
tip, is then cut off, and preserved to be used in making knife- 
handles, buttons, &c.; the remainder is softened by boiling 
water, and exposm’e to the flame of a fire. In this state 


120 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


it is slit with a knife, and pressed flat between hot iron 
plates. If required for thm sheets for lanterns, it is jiressed 
with great force, then split into thin layers, smoothed by 
scraping, and afterwards polished. 

When prepared for combs, the horn is slightly pressed and 
cut into the required shape by a saw and rasps; the teeth are 
then cut by a saw, and finished by rasping. 

If a very large piece of horn is required for a comb, or 
any other article, two pieces are joined together by heating 
the edges until they are quite soft, and pressing them together 
firmly till they are cold. 

Drinking cups are formed by moulding the hollow part of 
the horn (softened by heat) into a regular shape—it is then 
polished. A deep groove is afterwards cut or turned near the 
bottom; it is again softened by heat, and a flat piece of horn, 
of the proper size, forced into the groove. The cup contracts 
as it cools, and the joint is perfectly water-tight. 

Horns were ancientlv used in making the musical instru- 
ment so called: the name still remains, thus we have the 
bugle-horn, &c. 

Horse-Hair. —By this name is generally meant the hair 
of the tail and of the mane of a horse. 

The long hair of the tail is woven into a kind of coarse 
cloth for sieves ; also into a fabric for covering sofas, chairs, 
&c.; but in this case the horse-hair only runs in one direction, 
and threads of flax or hemp in the other, so strong and firm 
as to give great strength to the whole. 

The long hairs are also used to form fishing-lines and 
violin-bows. 

The inferior and shorter hair is used for stuffing matresses, 
sofas, &c. To fit it for this purpose, it is baked with a gentle 
heat, by which it is rendered much more elastic than before. 

The short hair of the mane is used for stuffing horse collars, 
and for very inferior w ork. 

Ivory. —Ivory is the name applied to the bony substance 
forming the teeth of various animals, as the hipjiopotamus, 
walrus, and elephant; though, usually, those of the latter 
alone are meant. It is the tusks of the elephant which fur¬ 
nish this substance—the grinding teeth are formed of various 


MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. 


121 


hard substaiices, not at all resembling ivory; these tusks 
1 sually weigh, each, from fifty to seventy pounds, and some¬ 
times they are even much larger. When c\it, the inner 
part of each tusk is found to be white, of a veiy fine, close 
grain; extremely hard, and yet clastic—slightly compressible 
by great force. hen cut into thin sheets, it has a degree of 
transparency greater than paper of the same thickness. Its 
use in the arts dejiends on its possessing various properties. 
From its white colour and semi-transparency it is used in 
thin sheets to j)aint miniatures upon. The turner employs 
it for various small articles, on account of its beaut}' and 
hardness, whilst its elasticity and closeness of texture render 
it much less liable to crack than bone. Dentists use the 
various kinds of ivory for making artificial teeth : the quali¬ 
ties of hardness and whiteness again recommending it. 

Ivory is composed of the same kind of material as bone 
(see Bone), viz., an earthy substance and glue; hence, the 
small fragments and powder formed in turning, filing, and 
working ivory, are sold under the name of ivory dust, for the 
])ur[)Ose of making jelly; as, when boiled for some hours in 
water, the gluey portion dissolves and forms a nutritious jelly, 
fit for food. 

Leathers, various. —Sole leathery upper leather, mo¬ 
rocco leather, glove leather, and wash leather. —Leather is a 
substance universally used amongst civilised, and very gene¬ 
rally among barbarous, nations. It is made from the skins of* 
animals, which are tanned and prepared with some substance 
having the power of changing the perishable skin, that decays 
readily when wet or moist, into a lasting and comparatively 
imperishable leather. 

As leather is prepared from the skins of different animals, 
and is required for various uses, several tanning substances 
are used, according to the kind of leather required; that for 
the soles and upper leathers of men’s shoes, for harness, and 
such like jmrposes, is prepared and tanned, as it is termed, 
with the aid of oak bark. The hides or skins, either fresh, 
as received from the butcher, or salted, as they are brought 
from abroad, being spread out, the small pieces of flesh on 
the inside of the skin are removed; the hide is then soaked 

M 


122 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


in lime-water, by which means the hair is loosened, and can 
be readily scraped otF. Thus cleansed from the hair and 
flesh, it is soaked for some days in sour water, made so either 
by putting barley or rye flour into it, which remains till it be¬ 
comes sour, or by adding a small quantity of oil of vitriol. 
This acid solution has the effect of opening the pores of the 
skin, so that the tan can afterwards penetrate into it more 
readily. The hide is then placed in the tan-pit along with 
oak bark and w ater; it is first placed in weak, and lastly in 
strong tan. Sometimes the hides and powdered bark are laid 
in layers one over the other until the pit is full. The pro¬ 
cess of completely changing the skin into leather is a very 
slow one. To make strong and well-tanned leather, the hides 
remain in the pits from six to twelve, or even to eighteen 
months. If the hides are taken out too soon, the middle of 
the skin is not tanned. The hides, being removed, are dried, 
and then passed between rollers, which gives them a smooth 
surface, and renders them firmer. 

By these jirocesses the skin is much altered in its proper¬ 
ties ; when it is taken from the animal it is soft and moist, 
but when it becomes dry it is brittle, and liable to crack, 
and very perishable, putrefying rajiidly if kept wet: these 
qualities prevent untanned skins being of much use to man. 
Leather, on the contrary, is flexible and soft, whether it be 
wet or dry; it is, if ]n’ 0 })erly prejiared, water-jiroof and last¬ 
ing, not decaying when moist; at the same time it is light and 
sufficiently strong to stand much wear when made into shoes, 
harness, &c.; for which purpose these properties render it 
better fitted than any other material known. 

The leather required for the upper leather of boots, &c. is 
sent from the tanner to the currier, who, by rubbing and par¬ 
ing it down, renders it more flexible, softer, and capable of 
being polished; at the same time he blackens it with lamj)- 
black and oil, or tallow. The skins used for upper leathers 
are calf, and the thinner skins of cows and horses ; whilst the 
thicker ones, of oxen, &c., are made into soles. 

Other kinds of leather, required for different purposes, are 
made by slight variations in the process. 

Morocco leather is prepared from goat skins, which are im¬ 
ported into this country. The flesh and hail’ are scraped off’ as 


MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. 


123 


before described; each skin is then sewed into the shape of a 
bag, which is filled with a vegetable substance termed sumach, 
and water; this, like the oak bark, is astringent, and it has 
the effect of tanning these thin skins in a few hours; they 
are then dyed of the colour required, and rubbed over with a 
grooved ball in order to give them the grooved appearance 
which distinguishes morocco leather. Imitation or inferior 
morocco is manufactured from sheep skins. As thus prepared, 
morocco leather is soft, and very flexible, from the rubbing it 
receives, whilst its grooved apjiearance renders it very beauti¬ 
ful. When dyed it is frequently chosen for covering books, 
for chair-covers, and lining carriages, &c. 

The thin leather, which from its softness and capability of 
yielding or stretching, is usually selected for gloves and 
ladies’ shoes, is tanned with alum, after the skin has been 
scraped free from flesh and hair. In order to render this 
kind of leather as soft and yielding as possible, it is, during 
the process, prepared with eggs and flour. Although the 
gloves and shoes made with it are termed kid, yet the skins 
used in the preparation are chiefly those of lambs. 

The only other kind of leather to be mentioned is that 
termed wash, or shamois leather. In order to prepare it the 
skins are cleaned with lime, dried, and then beaten with 
heavy hammers, being kept Avet with oil; they are then hung 
up to dry, again beaten with the addition of fresh oil; and 
this operation is many times repeated. The excess of oil is 
then removed by soaking the skin in water containing pearl- 
ash ; it is afterwards dried, and is then fit for use. Being 
exceedingly sofft, it is much employed in polishing metal 
articles; and, from its warmth and softness, it is frequently 
made into under waistcoats, &c. It does not resist the wet, ^ 
and is therefore unfit for outer clothing. 

Milk. —Milk is the fluid with which the young animals of 
the class of mammals or quadrupeds are nourished. 

It consists of several distinct substances, which separate 
from one another on its being allowed to remain undisturbed: 
these substances are cream, curd, and whey. The cream is 
obtained by allowing the milk to stand in shallow pans twelve 
or more hours, w'hen it rises to the surface, and is readily re¬ 
moved. What remains is called skim, or skimmed milk ; if 

M 2 


124 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


this is allowed to stand some time it becomes sour, and the 
curd, or solid part, separates from the whey. 

In this country the milk of cows is that most generally 
used for food ; and, besides being most extensively employed 
in its fresh state, it is in great demand for making butter and 
cheese. 

Butter is made by collecting a sufficient quantity of cream, 
which is placed in the churn, a wooden tub, wider at the 
bottom than at the top, and covered by a round lid with 
a hole in the centre, through which a handle passes, that 
is fixed to a round flat board with several holes in it. 
The cream, which fills two thirds of the churn, is violently 
agitated, by the handle being moved uj) and down. In the 
course of an hour’s churning small lumps of butter apjiear, 
which soon unite togrether into larj^er masses. When the 
butter is formed, it is taken out of the churn, washed, and 
])ressed, and (unless used fresh) is salted and cashed for use. 
The liquid part of the cream left in the churn after the butter 
is removed is called butter-milk, and is chiefly used for feed- 
ingpigs. 

Cheese is the curd of milk pressed and dried. The curd 
may be separated from the whey bv allowing the milk to be¬ 
come sour; but the cheese so produced is inferior in quality. 
In this country rennet is added to the milk to curdle it; this 
rennet is a fluid prepared from the stomach of a sucking calf. 
The curd formed by the rennet is separated from the 
whey, salted, and strongly pressed into a shape; it is then 
dried, and is ready for use. The richness of cheese depends 
on the milk from which it is made. Skim milk makes 
poor hard cheese ; whereas, if an extra portion of cream be 
added to the milk, as is done in making Stilton cheese, the 
quality is much improved. It is often the practice to colour 
cheese; this is done by adding a dye called annatto to the 
milk. 

Although in England the use of cows’ milk alone is gene¬ 
ral, ill other countries that of different animals is used ; as, 
goats’ milk in Switzerland, reindeers’ in Lapland, camels’ in 
Arabia, and mares’ in Tartary. 

The milk of the ewe contains a much larger quantity of 
cream, and is richer than that of any other animal that has 
been examined. 


MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. 


126 


That of the ass contains no cream, and is therefore drank 
by invalids, vs ith whom oily substances would disagree. 

Parchment. —Parchment is a writing material made of 
the skin of sheep or goats. The skins are first prepared by 
the leather-dresser, in the same manner as if they were to be 
formed into leather (see Leather), being soaked in lime to 
remove grease and loosen the wool, which is afterwards 
scraped off. They are then very tightly stretched, either 
over a hoop or by means of a strong wooden frame; then, 
with a large double-handled knife, the skin in scraped, or 
pared down on both sides, and all irregularities of the surface 
are removed, when it is ground, or rubbed smooth with 
pumice stone and chalk, or lime; it is then allowed to diy 
slowly, and is again scraped and ground with smooth pumice 
stone until it is reduced to the requisite degree of smooth¬ 
ness. 

As thus prepared, the chief use of parchment is for writing 
upon, it being much stronger and less liable to injury than 
paper, and being less perishable. For this reason all legal 
writings, such as wills, leases of houses and land, are written 
upon it. 

It is also used for drum heads, for binding books, &c.; but 
in these cases a stronger substance is required, and the skins 
of asses, calves, &c. are employed instead of those of sheep. 

Soap. —This useful substance is of great antiquity. In ex¬ 
cavating the city of Pompeii, which was buried by an eruption 
of Mount Vesuvius, about 1700 years ago, a soap-maker’s 
shop, containing soap, was discovered. In the Old Testament 
it is referred to in Jer. ii. 22, and Mai. iii. 2; but it is 
thought that what is there alluded to is the ashes of some 
plant. 

The whole of the various hard soaps used by us are pre¬ 
pared from different kinds of fat, or oil, and the alkali soda 
(see Soda). It is necessary, in order to prepare soaps, that 
the common soda should be rendered much more caustic 
than it is in its usual condition; this is done by boding it 
with lime fresh burnt, which, acting chemically on the soda, 
greatly increases its caustic powers. The soda thus prepared 
and dissolved in water, forms what is termed the lye or ley 

M 3 


126 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


of the soap-boiler. The soap called mottled is manufactured 
in the following manner. In a large iron vessel, heated either 
hy steam or a fire, is a large quantity of melted tallow and 
kitchen grease; into this a quantity of the ley is poured, or 
pumped. The mixture is boiled for some time, and fre¬ 
quently stirred, during which time the tallow, &c. unites with 
all the soda of the ley, leaving the water, which is then 
pumped away, and a fresh supply of it poured in ; this is re¬ 
peated as often as is required, until the whole of the tallow 
and grease is changed into soap. The mottled appearance, 
from which this soap has derived its name, is caused by a 
small quantity of very strong ley being sjirinkled on the sur¬ 
face ; this sinks in, and marbles, or mottles, the soap. In 
order to cool and harden the soap it is removed from the 
boiler and poured into large pans; and when become a solid 
mass, is removed, and cut up by wires into the bars in which 
it is sold. 

Curd soap is made in nearly the same manner, pure white 
tallow, without kitchen grease, being used. When scented, 
and cast in small cakes, it is sold as Windsor soap. 

Yellow soap is made with resin and palm oil instead of 
tallow. It is the resin that gives it the ])eculiar smell and 
bitter taste it possesses. 

Soft soap is made with pearlash (see Pearlash) instead 
of soda, and whale or seal oil used with the tallow. 

All the various soajis are soluble in water, forming semi¬ 
transparent solutions. If the water containing soap be shaKvii, 
or agitated, it retains on its surface the bubbles of air; it is 
then said to lather. 

When wet, or dissolved, soap has a peculiar feel, which is 
so unlike that of other bodies that it is distinguished by the 
term soapy. The great use of soap depends ujion its dissolv¬ 
ing in water, and upon its pow er of removing grease and dirt. 
This effect is owing to the caustic alkali it contains. It may 
be asked, would it not be better to use the caustic soda by 
itself, instead of mixing it with tallow ? It would not, because 
its action would be too violent—it would burn and destroy ; 
whereas, when made into soap, it retains much of its power 
of purifying without any of the destructive effects of its caus¬ 
tic nature. 


MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. 


127 


Sponge.—T he substance so well known by this name is 
an animal product, which is found attached to the rocks under 
water in the Mediterranean and other seas. 

Sponge is a light, soft, and highly elastic material, very 
easily compressed, and ra|)idly resuming its original shape 
when the pressure is removed. It is exceedingly porous, con¬ 
taining an immense number of small tubes, which communi¬ 
cate with some larger apertures that are found in it. The 
substance of the sponge consists of horny elastic fibres, and 
these are so placed as to form the tubes and pores described. 

When the sponge is in the sea, alive, the inside of the 
pores are covered with a soft substance, like white of egg. 
This ajipears to be the flesh of the animal, and currents of 
water may be seen running into the sponge through the small 
pores and out of it through the large ones ; and it is supposed 
that whilst the water is passing through the sponge, the 
nourishment requisite for the support of the animal is ex¬ 
tracted from it. 

When the sponge is removed from the water, this soft flesh 
drains away, leaving nothing but the elastic fibrous substance 
with which we are acquainted. 

The use of sponge, as a material for washing with, depends, 
chiefly, on its being so highly porous and elastic. When 
placed in water its pores become filled with the liquid. If in 
this state it is compressed, the water is readily forced out over 
any thing it is desired to clean, and as soon as the pressure 
is taken away the sponge resumes its former size, and its 
pores are again open to suck up a fresh supply of fluid, if 
required. 

The sponge we use comes from the Mediterranean Sea, 
where it is procured by diving, and also by dredging, or drag¬ 
ing the bottom of the ocean. The best sponge, which is 
white and fine, comes from Turkey ; the inferior and coarser 
kinds from the coast of Barbary. Ten or eleven kinds of 
sponge are found on the coast of our own country—none of 
them are fit for use. 

Tortoiseshell. —This beautiful substance is produced 
by a sea tortoise, or turtle. The animal from which the tor¬ 
toiseshell of commerce is obtained is the hawksbill turtle, a 
native of the seas of the torrid zone. 


12S 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


Its usual length is about three feet. As in the other ani¬ 
mals of the order to which it belongs, it is enclosed in a bony 
case, formed underneath by the expanded breast-bone, and 
on the back by the flattened ribs and sjiine; on this bony 
arch grow the scales of tortoiseshell. In the hawksbill these 
scales of the back are thirteen in number, besides twentv-five 
small ones at the edge; they overlap *one another to a great 
extent, and are thick in proportion to the size and age of the 
animal. 

The plates or scales are readily removed from the bony 
arch by heating it over a fire; this process loosens them, and 
they are easily separated by passing a knife under them. The 
value of the rough shell is very considerable, the best being 
worth about three guineas a pound. Frequently it is injured 
by barnacles, limpets, and other shell fish fixing themselves 
to the turtle whilst alive. Tortoiseshell is manufactured in a 
similar manner to horn, a substance which it closely resembles. 
It is first softened by boiling in salt and water, and is then 
pressed flat until cold; it is rendered smooth and of uni¬ 
form thickness by scraping and filing; and if larger pieces are 
required than can be obtained from single plates, two or 
more pieces are united together in the following manner. 
The edges to be joined are sloped off* to the distance of about 
a quarter of an inch from the edge—the margins are so placed 
as to overlap one another, and pressed together by an iron 
press—the whole is then placed for some time in boiling 
water; the two pieces by this means become so perfectly 
united that the joint cannot be seen. The filings and powder 
of the varions processes are not lost; they are collected and 
placed in moidds, made of metal, and by the action of 
pressure and boiling water are formed into any shape that 
may be desired. As heat is hkely to darken the tortoise¬ 
shell, and greatly lessen its beauty, it is usually cut into the 
required patters by drills and saws, instead of being moulded 
ike horn. 

In making small combs, in order to save the tortoiseshell, 
two combs are formed out of one piece; the teeth of one 
comb being cut out of the spaces between the teeth of the 
other. Besides its use for combs, boxes, &c., tortoiseshell is 
also used for inlaying and ornamenting tables, cabinets, &c. 
For this purpose it is cut thin, and a bright metal is placed 


MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. 


129 


underneath it; this, shining through the thin shell, gives it a 
brilliant appearance. 

Whalebone. —This peculiar substance is not, as its name 
might seem to signify, obtained from the bones of the whale, 
but from what forms a substitute for teeth in the Greenland 
whale, and the kinds more nearly resembling it. 

The lower jaw of this animal is very large and spoon¬ 
shaped. It is totally destitute of teeth, or any thing re¬ 
sembling them. From the sides of the upper jaw (occupying 
the usual situation of teeth in other animals) hang the plates 
or blades of whalebone, about three hundred in number on 
each side; they are flat, and ranged parallel to each other at 
right angles to the jaw’. Their points and edges next the in¬ 
side of the mouth are coarsely fibrous, so that they form a 
sort of strainer, or filter, the lower ends of the plates being 
enclosed within the capacious lower jaw\ The blades are the 
longest at the middle of the jaw, and gradually decrease in 
length towards each end. The usual length of the longest 
plates is about nine feet, though they sometimes attain that of 
fourteen or fifteen feet. 

The surface of each blade is firm and very compact, and 
can be readily polished. This substance is easily split in the 
direction of its length. In the centre, between the two sur¬ 
faces, it is less compact, being more fibrous, and the point 
and inside edge are so coarsely fibrous as to form a kind of 
coarse fringe. 

The use of this apparatus to the whale is very great; it is 
the only means it possesses of securing its food; for although 
this creatm’e attains the immense length of fifty-five to sixty- 
five feet, and a girth of thirty or forty feet, with a weight 
equalling that of two hundred oxen, it feeds entirely on the 
small pulpy animals that float in countless multitudes in the 
water of the arctic seas. In order to secure these it swims 
with considerable rapidity, the mouth being open. The 
water rushes in at the fore part, where the plates of whalebone 
are absent, and passes out at the sides, being strained through 
the fringe or filter above described, which allows the water 
to escape, but retains the food of the whale. The passage to 
the stomach of the animal is of very small size, so as to pre¬ 
vent it from swallowing even the smaller fishes. 


130 


ANIMAL KINGDOM. 


The quantity of whalebone yielded by a Greenland whale 
of full size is about one ton. In colour it is generally dusky 
greyish black ; some pieces are partially, or even wholly white. 
The first step in the preparation of whalebone is to boil it for 
some hours in water. This operation renders it soft, and more 
readily cut; but when it has become cool again, after boiling, 
it is harder, and of a darker colour than it was before. 

Whalebone is used for various purposes. It is split into 
fibres, which are used instead of hair in making coarse 
brooms and brushes. It is also employed in great quantities 
in the manufacture of the stretchers for umbrellas and para¬ 
sols, for which purpose it is well fitted, by reason of its great 
elasticity. It is also employed for stiffening women’s apparel 
and is platted into riding-whips. 

The white pieces are sometimes cut in thin strips and made 
into bonnets, and even, after dying, into artificial flowers. 



131 


TEXTILE OE WOVEN FABRICS, 

AND THEIR MATERIALS. 


Note.—T he materials from which our clothing is derived are 
obtained from both the animal and vegetable kingdoms; it 
has, however, been thought better to unite the descriptions of 
them under one head, as the processes they undergo in the 
course of manufacture are very similar, and needless repeti¬ 
tion will be avoided by such an arrangement. The same reason 
has led to the insertion of a short account of the processes of 
S})inning and weaving. 

Spinning .—This process, which consists in uniting the 
loose fibres of cotton, flax, or wool, &c. into a thread fit for 
the use of the weaver, is of the greatest antiquity; it is al¬ 
luded to by Moses in Exod. xxxv. 25, and was at that time 
evidently an old art. Originally it was performed with the 
distaff and spindle; the former was a stick about a yard long, 
with a knob near one end. Around this the flax or wool 
previously combed, so as to lay the fibres parallel, was loosely 
twisted. Thus charged, the distaff was held under the left 
arm, some of the fibres being pulled out by the thumb and 
fingers of the right hand, and twisted into a thread, which 
was wound upon the spindle, a rod of wood about a foot in 
length, having a slit at one end in which the thread could be 
caught; the other end of the spindle was fastened to a piece 
of stone or metal to increase its weight; this enabled the 
spinner to keep it spinning round as it hung by the thread, 
whilst the fingers were pulling out fresh fibres from the dis¬ 
taff. As soon as the spindle reached the ground, the thread 
was taken out of the slit, wound on it again, fastened, and a 
new’ length commenced. Distaffs and spindles are still used 
by the peasants in some of the mcst remote parts of Ireland. 



132 


TEXTILE OR WOVEN FABRICS, 


This process of spinning was at length superseded by the 
use of the spinning-wheel; tlie eotton or w'ool, first combed 
or carded, so as to lay the fibres parallel, is attached to a 
spindle so fixed that it is made to turn with great rapidity by 
a straj) of leather ])assing over a large wheel, which in its turn 
is caused to revolve by the hand or foot of the spinner. 

At the present time the spinning-wheel is almost as rare to 
be seen as the distafi’ and si)indle, all the varieties of clothing 
being now woven from thread spun by the aid of powerful 
and complicated machinery, whieh acts upon the same prin¬ 
ciple as the spinning-wheel, although far too intrieate to be 
understood without the aid of a long description aided by 
numerous illustrations. 

Weaving. —Weaving, or the art of making cloth by the in¬ 
terlacing of threads, has been practised from the earliest 
times. Upon the tombs of the ancient Egyptians are found 
paintings of looms constructed on the same plan as the hand 
loom of the present day ; and these were in use in the time 
of Joseph. 

If we examine a piece of any plain woven material, as 
calico, silk, &c., we find a number of parallel threads running 
longitudinally the whole length of the cloth ; these threads 
are called the warp. There are also cross threads wdiich ]}ass 
alternately over and under the threads of the warp; these 
threads form the weft. 

In weaving, the first process is to fix the threads of the 
W'arp; in a common loom these are wound as evenly as pos¬ 
sible upon a cylindrical beam or roller; a kind of comb being 
used to lay them parallel, and spread them to the required 
width of the cloth ; the warp is then partly unrolled, the ends 
being fastened to another roller. In order to separate the 
threads of the warp, so that the thread of the weft may pass 
alternately above and below' them, the contrivances called 
heddles are used; each heddle consists of tw’O horizontal 
sticks, one jdaced a small distance above and across, the other 
below the warp. These two sticks are connected together by 
a number of small threads passing from the one to the other, 
perpendicularly through the threails of the w arp; in the mid¬ 
dle of each thread of the heddle there is a little eye or loop, 
through which every alternate thread of the warp is passed. 


AND THEIR MATERIALS. 


133 


whilst the remaining threads of the warp are passed through 
the loops of the other heddle. 

Each heddle is so fastened that it may be raised up or 
pulled down about two inches by a treadle moved by the feet 
of the workman. Now it is evident that if one heddle be 
pulled up and the other down, half the threads of the warp 
will be raised, and every alternate one depressed, leaving a 
space between them through which the thread of the w'eft 
can be passed, when it will be over half the threads of the 
w^arp and under the other half. If the heddle that is pulled 
up is now pulled down, and the one that w as down pulled up, 
the position of the threads of the w arp is reversed ; and if the 
weft thread be then passed between the two layers, it will be 
under the threads it passed over before, and over those it w as 
under. As it would be difficult to pass the thread of the 
wnft by the hand, it is wound on a small piece of wood 
called a shuttle, which is thrown across the warp, and the 
thread unwinds as it proceeds. 

In weaving by hand, the weaver sits at one end,of the warp 
with a foot on the treadle of each heddle, and then takes the 
shuttle in one hand; he then raises one heddle, by which half 
the threads of the warp are raised, the other depressed. 
Through the opening between the threads he throws the 
shuttle right across from one side to the other : then with a 
contrivance called a batten, which is like a large comb, he 
forces the thread of the weft close up to those previously 
woven. Then, taking the shuttle in the other hand, he raises 
the other heddle, w hich reverses the position of the threails 
of the warp, and throws the shuttle back again; the thread 
of the w eft is then pulled up by the batten close to the last 
thread, and the process is continued until the whole of the 
warp is made into cloth by being crossed by the thread of the 
weft. As the cloth is woven, it is wound upon a roller, so as 
to be out of the w'ay of the weaver. 

In this manner what is called plain weaving is conducted, 
and some slight variations of the process will be noticed un¬ 
der the heads of the different fabrics described. 

The hand loom, as the instrument is called, which has 
been described, is rapidly giving place to the employment of 
the power loom, in which the various movements described 
are all accomplished by the force of the machinery, w hich is 

N 


134 


TEXTILE OR WOVEN FABRICS, 


moved by steam engines. The principle, however, is the 
same. 

Raw Cotton. —This extremely valuable substance is the 
produce of the cotton tree, a plant of which there are several 
varieties; some distinguished bv being annuals, whilst others 
are shrubby and attain the size of a small tree. 

The leaves are deeply notched, or divided into several 
lobes. The flowers are large, of a sulphur yellow colour, and 
resemble in formation and appearance those of the single 
hollyhock; each flower is succeeded by a brownish seed- 
vessel, which is surrounded by three heart-shaped leaves, 
toothed at the edge. This seed-vessel when ripe bursts open, 
and discloses a mass of snowy white cotton, amongst which 
are the seeds. One variety of cotton much cultivated in 
China has the yellow tinge that is preserved when woven into 
the cloth called nankeen. The cotton j)lant is largely culti¬ 
vated in India, China, in the United States of America, the 
West Indies, the shores of the Mediterranean, and almost all 
the warmer parts of the world. 

Whatever variety is cultivated, the cotton is picked out of 
the 0])en pod W'hilst the plant is standing in the ground ; that 
portion only being selected which is ripe. It is dried in the 
sun; and the next object is to separate the seeds, which would 
otherwise injure the cotton, they being oily. In India this is 
done by means of two rollers, which are so fixed in a frame 
as to turn round together, leaving a small space between 
them; the cotton is drawn through by the turning rollers, 
but the seeds, being too large to pass, are torn off and sepa¬ 
rated. But this machine will only free from the seeds about 
forty-five pounds of cotton in a day; therefore another pro¬ 
cess is adopted in America. The cotton is placed in a kind 
of box, one side of which is formed of a grating of strong 
parallel wires about one-eighth of an inch apart. Close to 
this box is a roller bearing a number of circular saw s, the 
teeth of which pass through the grating into the box. When 
the roller is made to turn rapidly, the teeth of the saw’s drag 
the cotton through the wdre, whilst the seeds, being too large 
to pass, remain behind. Thus separated from its seeds, the 
cotton is jiressed tightly in bags, and is brought to this coun¬ 
try under the name of Raw Cotton. 


AND THEIR MATERIALS. 


135 


The manufacture of raw cotton into calicoes and other 
fabrics is now entirely accomplished by the aid of compli¬ 
cated machinery, the description of which could not be fol¬ 
lowed without the aid of numerous engravings, which would 
be useless in a work of this nature; therefore merely the 
name and use of each process will be mentioned, without a 
lengthened account. 

In the first place, the cotton is picked by hand, so as to 
loosen its fibres and free it from dirt. This operation is com¬ 
pleted by a machine called a willow, in which the tufts of 
cotton are torn into separate fibres by rapidly revolving iron 
spikes. These loose light fibres require to be laid parallel 
before spinning; this is etfected by the carding machine, in 
which the cotton is passed betw een what may be likened to 
two brushes of iron wire : these have the effect of laying all 
the fibres parallel, wken they are transferred to the spinning 
machine, of which there are various modifications, but the 
effect of all is to form a slight thread fit for the use of the 
weaver. This is made to vary according to the purpose 
required; some yarn (as the spun cotton is termed) being fine, 
for muslin and lace ; another kind strong, for coarse w ork; a 
third is retwisted, tw^o or three threads together, so as to 
make the strong and firm material known as sewing cotton. ^ 

Flax. —The plant knovMi as the common flax is a native 
of this country, and is found abundantly in many other parts 
of the world. The variety most commonly cultivated is an 
annual, w'ith slender green herbaceous stems one foot and a 
half or two feet in height, bearing narrow pointed leaves 
without stalks, and terminated by elegant blue flow'ers; each of 
which is succeeded by a capsule or seed-vessel, containing 
ten flat oblong seeds of a brown colour. The flax plant is 
cultivated for two purposes. When the fibres of the stem are 
required to form lint, or the material of linen, the seeds are 
thickly sown, so as to cause the stems of the crowded plants 
to run up high and thin. When the seeds, which are called 
linseed, are the principal object, the seeds are sown less 
thickly, and the plants are allowed to remain longer in the 
ground before reaping. 

When ripe, the leaves fall off and the stems turn yellow; 
the flax is then pulled out of the ground by l^andfuls ; care- 

N 2 


136 


TEXTILE OR TfOVEN FABRICS, 


fully dried in the sun, and then either stacked or stored in 
barns until the next year, or stripped of its seeds at once, by 
drawing the ends through an iron comb fixed upright in a 
block of wood. The seed-vessels, being too large to pass 
through the teeth of the comb, are torn off, and fall into a 
basket below ; sometimes they are separated by beating. As 
thus obtained, linseed, or the seeds of the flax, are extremely 
valuable in the arts from the quantity of oil they contain ; in 
order to extract this for use, they are crushed by immense 
pressure, and the oil forced out. If they are slightly heated 
by steaming before being pressed, they yield a larger quantity 
of oil, although it is rather injured in quality by the warmth. 
From 100 pounds of linseed are usually obtained twenty- 
three or twenty-four pounds of oil. 

Linseed oil is one of the cheapest and most useful of our 
vegetable oils; it is used in large quantities by painters and 
glaziers, for making paint and putty, and is also employed for 
other purposes in the arts. Though not unwholesome, it soon 
becomes rancid and nauseous to the taste; therefore it is un¬ 
fit for the food of man. 

The crushed mass that remains after the oil has been 
pressed from the seeds, is extremely nutritious, and is much 
used for fattening cattle under the name of oil-cake. 

The skins of the seeds contain a large quantity of mucila¬ 
ginous or gummy matter, and when boiling water is poured 
on to them this substance is dissolved, and the solution is 
called linseed tea. If care be taken that the seeds be not 
broken, it is quite free from any oily taste. 

The seeds ground into powder form what is called linseed 
meal, a substance much used in medicine, for poultices, &c. 

The stems of the flax plant freed from the seed under¬ 
go a series of processes to prepare them for the use of the 
weaver. They are first steeped, or partially rotted in shallow 
pools of water, in order to cause the fibres of the bark (the 
jiart employed) to separate readily from one another; the 
stems are then dried by being sjiread out upon grass and ex¬ 
posed to the sun and air for about a fortnight. The next pro¬ 
cess removes the central woody portion of the stem, which has 
been rendered brittle by the steeping the flax has undergone; 
the instrument used is called a brake. The simplest is a piece 
of w'ood, having a long slit in it, and raised on a stand; into 


AND THEIR MATERIALS. 


137 


this slit a blunt wooden sword fits loosely. If a bundle of flax 
be laid over the slit and the sword brought down upon it, the 
woody brittle part of the stem is broken by being bent as the 
sword presses it into the slit. In general the brake is made 
of three swords fixed to one handle, and so arranged as to 
pass between the edges of four others fastened in the frame; 
thus the flax is broken in four places at once. In some parts 
of England the flax is beaten with a mallet to break and sepa¬ 
rate the woody portion of the stem. After being thus broken, 
the pieces of the wood are beaten out from amongst the fibres 
by a flat wooden staff, or sometimes rubbed out by hand; at 
the present time, in England, both these operations are per¬ 
formed by machinery. 

In order to fit it for the use of the spinner and weaver, the 
flax has now to undergo the process of heckling, the object of 
which is to comb out the short, useless fibres, and lay the long 
ones parallel. The heckle consists of a piece of wood thickly 
covered with metal points about one or two inches long, so 
that each heckle may be compared to a brush made of sharp- 
pointed needles instead of bristles; of these heckles, some 
are coarse, others fine. The workman, taking a bundle of 
flax in his hands, throws it on to the heckle, fixed to a stand 
before him, and drawing the flax through the teeth causes the 
long fibres to become parallel, whilst the short broken ones 
are retained by the teeth of the instrument; these latter are 
preserved and sold under the name of tow. In the flax 
mills, at the present time, this process is also performed by 
machines. 

As thus prepared, either by the hand or by machinery, the 
flax is ready for spinning. At the present time nearly all the 
flax used in this country is machine-spun, some being made 
into yarn for the weaver’s use, and a portion is employed in 
making linen thread, fit for lace-making and needle-work, by 
two yarn threads being tightly twisted together. 

Flax, when woven, yields linen cloth, damask, sheetings, &c. 
At the present day most of these fabrics are made by the hand 
loom, as described in the introduction to this series of articles; 
the chief stations of the manufacture being Dundee, in Scot¬ 
land, and the various pai ts of Ireland. 

Hemp. —The plant yielding hemp is an annual, a native, 

N 3 


138 


TEXTILE OR WOVEN FABRICS, 


originally, of the warmer parts of Asia and Europe, but now 
much more extensively cultivated. 

Its stem, which is erect and simple, or unbranched, is from 
four to six feet in height, and bears numerous leaves, sup¬ 
ported on long stalks, and divided into five lance-shaped 
rough green leaflets, eaeh of which is notched like a saw at 
the edge; the whole plant is covered with stiff hairs, giving 
it a peculiar harshness to the touch. The flowers are of two 
kinds, barren and fertile; they grow upon different plants, 
and are green and inconspicuous. Each fertile flower is suc¬ 
ceeded by a small seed-like fruit, enclosed in the green cup 
of the flower; the fruit is collected and sold under the name 
of hemp seed. 

These seeds (as we may term them, in accordance with 
custom) abound with oil, which they yield readily upon being 
crushed in an oil j)ress. They are exceedingly nutritious, and 
are frequently given to birds in confinement. The oil ob¬ 
tained from them is much used in the preparation of var¬ 
nishes ; is sometimes employed in the formation of soft soap ; 
and, occasionally, for burning in lamps. 

The hemp plant, especiall}’’ when grown in a tropical cli¬ 
mate, possesses a peculiar narcotic power, and the leaves 
eaten, or even smoked, when dry, wdll })roduce intoxication. 
P'or this purpose they are much employed by the inhabitants 
of the East, to whom the use of wine is forbidden by the Ma¬ 
hometan religion; even the seeds, given in abundance to 
birds, tend to shorten their lives, and, in some instances, 
change the colour of their plumage to black. 

Hemp is chiefly cvdtivated for its fibres, which are tough, 
flexible, and particularly strong; well adapted for the manu¬ 
facture of coarse fabrics, such as sail-cloth, sacking, ropes, 
string, &c. So great is the demand for it for these purposes, 
that 600,000 hundredweights are yearly imported; chiefly 
from Russia. 

For profital)le cidtivation hemp requires a sandy, rich soil. 
The plants, when full grown, are pulled up with the roots, the 
barren-flowered being first selected, whilst the fertile are left 
some weeks, in order that the seeds may ripen; the latter is 
readily rubbed out by hand. The roots and leaves are then 
removed, after which the stems are placed in water to rot, so 
that the fibres may be the more readily separated from each 


AND THEIR MATERIALS. 


139 


other. The operation of rotting the hemp renders the water 
poisonous, and gives rise to offensive and pestilential odours; 
when it is concluded the hemp is beaten and heckled, like 
flax, and finally spun into yarn fit for the weaving of canvas, 
sack-cloth, sail-cloth, &c. &c. It is also used for the formation 
of string, cables, and ropes of every description. The length 
of each fibre of hemp being but between three and four feet, 
it is obvious that to make a string several fibres must be so 
twisted as to hold firmly together; this process is usually 
performed by hand. The spinner, taking a bundle of heckled 
hemp, wraps it round his waist, bringing the two ends to the 
front; he then draws out a few fibres, and, twisting them 
together, fastens them to a hook, which is twirled round 
with great rapidity by a strap passing over it from a large 
wheel, turned by a boy. The spinner now walks backwards, 
away from the hook, and as he does so the part twisted by 
the twirling hook draw's more fibres out of the bundle round 
his waist, whilst with his hand he regulates their number, 
and so causes the yam to be uniform in size. 

Cord, or rope, is made by the twisting together a number 
of yarns, A small number are generally twisted together in 
the first instance, and several compound ones, so formed, re¬ 
twisted into a single cord. 

Silk. —The process of the formation of raw silk has 
already been described, under the head of Silkworm 
Moth, page 103. We have now to trace its further progress 
into spun silk, adapted to the use of the weaver and semps¬ 
tress. The hanks of raw silk are first washed in warm water, 
and then wound upon bobbins, or reels ; this is accomplished 
by the winding machine, the effect produced by it being the 
same as when a skein of silk held on the outstretched hand of 
one person is wound upon a reel by a second. After being 
thus wound, the fine filaments of silk have to undergo the 
process of sjiinning, twisting, or throwing; this is effected by 
a very complicated engine, termed the spinning machine. 
For the stouter threads, required for some purposes, several 
of the threads thus obtained are again twisted together. 

The thick, strong, and tightly-twisted silk, known as sew¬ 
ing-silk and twist, is made by hand, in the same manner that 


140 


TEXTILE OR WOVEN FABRICS, 


hemp is spun into rope, each piece of silk twist being from 
fifty to one hundred feet in length. 

The silk spun for the use of the weaver is usually dyed 
after it is tw isted, being first boiled in soap and water to 
render it soft and glossy. 

The only silk fabrics requiring a particular notice are shot 
silk, satin, and velvet. 

Shot silk is formed by having the warp and the weft of 
different coloured threads, so that a play of colours is pro¬ 
duced as the silk is seen from different points of view. 

Satin ow'es its peculiar lustre and softness to the circum¬ 
stance of its being so w'ove that the threads of the w arp only 
are visible, the threads of the weft scarcely coming to the 
upper surface. This is accomplished by carrying each thread 
of the weft under five or six threads of the warp, and then 
over one; again under five or six, over one, and so on. By 
this means the w^eft threads are scarcely seen, and a rich, 
glossy, unbroken surface is produced. 

Velvet, the soft pile of which is so peculiar, is formed by 
weaving short loops of silk into the fabric: these stand at 
right angles to, and hide both the w^eft and the warp; they 
are afterwards cut open by a sharp instrument, and the ends 
of the silk standing up from the cloth give to the velvet its 
peculiarly soft appearance. 

The same kind of formation is readily observed in thick 
hearth-rugs, where the cut ends of short worsted threads rise 
up from a coarse canvas. 

Wool. —From the earliest agesw'ool has been employed as 
a material for clothing. We are informed that Laban sheared 
the w'ool from the sheep during the life of the animals, as is 
practised at the present day. 

When spun and woven, wool yields two distinct classes of 
products, w'oollen and W'orsted goods. The latter are spun, 
usually, from English w'ool, in which the fibres are long and 
coarse; they are subject to nearly the same process as cotton, 
and yield flannels, camlet, merinos, moreens, &c. &c. 

Woollen goods, as they are termed, by w'hich is meant the 
various kinds of broad cloth, kerseymere, &c. &c., are pro¬ 
duced from Saxony and Australian wools, in which the fibres 


AND their materials. 


141 


are short; and peculiar processes are adopted to produce the 
soft nap distinguishing cloth. 

The woollen manufacture, properly so called, is chiefly 
carried on in the west of England and Yorkshire. For this 
purpose the wool is first sorted into many diflerent qualities, 
ditfering as to fineness, length of fibre, colour, &c. These 
various qualities are next separately washed in hot ley to re¬ 
move the grease they naturally contain, after which they are 
generally dyed of the required colour. The next process con¬ 
sists in the separation of the various fibres one from the other, 
so that the wool shall be in the form of a light downy layer; 
this is accomplished by the locks of wool being torn apart by 
the sharp spikes of a machine ; but before spinning they are 
required to be laid parallel; this process also, which in effect 
is somewhat similar to the heckling of flax, is, as well as the 
spinning into yaim, and the weaving, alike accomplished by 
machinery. 

After weaving, the cloth is felted, or fulled, as it is termed. 
The fulling-mills are so constructed that the cloth is beaten with 
heavy oaken hammers for two or three days; this causes the 
fibres of the wool to lock together so as to hide both the weft 
and the warp. Cotton or linen goods could not be felted 
in this way, as the fibres are smooth ; but each fibre of wool 
is covered with a series of rings of scales, like those of a 
serpent’s skin. When woollen cloth is fulled, these scales 
hook into one another, and the close nap is the result. In a 
fibre an inch long there are about three hundred rings, or 
teeth. During the fulling, the cloth shrinks very much, 
both in length and breadth ; cloth one hundred inches wide 
before fulling is about sixty inches afterwards; but in pro¬ 
portion as it shrinks in extent, it increases in thickness. The 
cloth, having been fulled, has the nap worked up or raised by 
rubbing it with teasel-heads; these are the flower heads of 
a plant, and are covered with small hooks, somewhat like 
w^hat are called burrs by the children in the country; the 
hooks, seizing the nap, loosen and raise it up from the 
cloth ; it is then cut of an even length, and pressed to give a 
glossy surface. 

Worsted goods, made of the long-fibred, coarse English 
wool, are not fulled after weaving, and hence the fibres of the 
warp and weft are always visible. 


142 


TEXTILE OR WOVEN FABRICS, &C. 


At the present time every process of the manufacture of 
worsted goods is aecomplished by machinery : the washing 
and drying of the wool; the combing and spinning of the 
fibres into the different kinds of yarn required for the various 
fabrics; and also its weaving when spun. 

Worsted thread is formed in the same manner as cotton 
thread, by the re-spinning two or more simple yams together. 

Note. —For a fuller account of these manufactures the 
reader may consult the monthly supplement to the Penny 
Magazine for the last two or three years; or Knight’s Weekly 
Volume^ Textile Manufactures, in which these admirable 
articles have been republished. 



LATELY PUBLISHED, 

BY DARTON AND CLARK, HOLBORN HILL, 


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A TABULAR VIEW OF THE 

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIZED 

BODIES. 


AKTER CUVIER AND DECANDOLI.E. 


BY W. BERNHARDT TEGETMEIER. 


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and classes of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Pictorial types are given, 
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scientific and technical rvo’^ds and phi’ascs are translated and carefully ex¬ 
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ADVERTISEMENT. 


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